Development and use of fluorescent probes of unbound bilirubin

ABSTRACT

Identification and use of proteins fluorescently labeled and that undergo a change in fluorescence index upon binding bilirubin are described. Probes are disclosed which are labeled at a cysteine or lysine residue and also probes labeled at both cysteine and lysine with two different fluorophores. These probes are useful for determination of unbound bilirubin levels in a fluid sample.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.14/238,144, filed Feb. 10, 2014 which is the US National Phase under 35U.S.C. §371 of International Application PCT/US 2012/052395, filed Aug.24, 2012 which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No.61/527,849, filed Aug. 26, 2011, which is incorporated into PCT/US2012/052395 by reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED R&D

This work was supported in part by Roadmap Grant No. R33 DK070314 andSBIR Grant No. R44 DK073535 from the National Institute of Health.Consequently, the U.S. government may have certain rights to thisinvention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The field of the invention relates to the identification and use ofprobes of unbound bilirubin which are fluorescently labeled proteinsthat undergo a change in fluorescence upon binding bilirubin and whichprobes are used to measure levels of unbound bilirubin. These probes donot significantly bind or undergo a significant fluorescent change inthe presence of other analytes generally present in fluids in whichunbound bilirubin levels are determined. These probes of unboundbilirubin can be used in the diagnosis and treatment ofhyperbilirubinemia and diseases that result in hyperbilirubinemia.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Bilirubin is a product of hemoglobin turnover that is poorly soluble inwater and is therefore largely associated with albumin in plasma. Asmall fraction of the total plasma bilirubin however is soluble in theaqueous phase. This unbound or free fraction is able to permeate theblood brain barrier and, at elevated levels, is neurotoxic [Ahlfors C E,Wennberg R P, Ostrow J D and Tiribelli C. Unbound (free) bilirubin:improving the paradigm for evaluating neonatal jaundice. Clin Chem 55:1288-1299, 2009]. Under normal conditions total serum bilirubin ismaintained at low levels by a regulated balance between production andexcretion of bilirubin. However in newborns the mechanisms of regulationmay not be sufficiently matured so that the production-excretion balanceoften favors accumulation, giving rise to the yellow color of jaundicein about 60% of newborns [Maisels M J and McDonagh A F. Phototherapy forneonatal jaundice. N Engl J Med 358: 920-928, 2008]. In most cases thisimbalance is benign or may in fact be beneficial and for most newbornsresolves spontaneously [Wennberg R P, Ahlfors C E, Bhutani V K, JohnsonL H and Shapiro S M. Toward understanding kernicterus: a challenge toimprove the management of jaundiced newborns. Pediatrics 117: 474-485,2006; Gopinathan V, Miller N J, Milner A D and Rice-Evans C A. Bilirubinand ascorbate antioxidant activity in neonatal plasma. FEBS Lett 349:197-200, 1994]. Concentrations of unbound bilirubin can however rise tolevels that are neurotoxic, resulting in deficits ranging fromreversible hearing defects to the more severe neurological sequelae ofkernicterus that in rare instances include death [Ahlfors C E, WennbergR P, Ostrow J D and Tiribelli C. Unbound (free) bilirubin: improving theparadigm for evaluating neonatal jaundice. Clin Chem 55: 1288-1299,2009].

Early intervention using phototherapy or exchange transfusion can treatbilirubin mediated neurotoxicity in neonates [Maisels M J and McDonagh AF. Phototherapy for neonatal jaundice. N Engl J Med 358: 920-928, 2008;Morris B H, Oh W, Tyson J E, Stevenson D K, Phelps D L, O'Shea T M,McDavid G E, Perritt R L, Van Meurs K P, Vohr B R, Grisby C, Yao Q,Pedroza C, Das A, Poole W K, Carlo W A, Duara S, Laptook A R, Salhab WA, Shankaran S, Poindexter B B, Fanaroff A A, Walsh M C, Rasmussen M R,Stoll B J, Cotten C M, Donovan E F, Ehrenkranz R A, Guillet R andHiggins R D. Aggressive vs. conservative phototherapy for infants withextremely low birth weight. N Engl J Med 359: 1885-1896, 2008;Kuzniewicz M W, Escobar G J and Newman T B Impact of universal bilirubinscreening on severe hyperbilirubinemia and phototherapy use. Pediatrics124: 1031-1039, 2009]. Guidelines for intervention depend principally ontotal bilirubin levels, with account taken for gestational age and riskfactors [Bhutani V K, Johnson L and Sivieri E M. Predictive ability of apredischarge hour-specific serum bilirubin for subsequent significanthyperbilirubinemia in healthy term and near-term newborns. Pediatrics103: 6-14, 1999]. However fundamental biochemical and increasingclinical evidence predicts that unbound bilirubin rather than totalbilirubin should more accurately correlate with bilirubin mediatedneurotoxicity [Ahlfors C E, Wennberg R P, Ostrow J D and Tiribelli C.Unbound (free) bilirubin: improving the paradigm for evaluating neonataljaundice. Clin Chem 55: 1288-1299, 2009; Wennberg R P, Ahlfors C E andAravkin A Y. Intervention guidelines for neonatal hyperbilirubinemia: anevidence based quagmire. Curr Pharm Des 15: 2939-2945, 2009; Ahlfors CE, Amin S B and Parker A E. Unbound bilirubin predicts abnormalautomated auditory brainstem response in a diverse newborn population. JPerinatol 29: 305-309, 2009; Oh W, Stevenson D K, Tyson J E, Morris B H,Ahlfors C E, Bender G J, Wong R J, Perritt R, Vohr B R, Van Meurs K P,Vreman H J, Das A, Phelps D L, O'Shea T M and Higgins R D. Influence ofclinical status on the association between plasma total and unboundbilirubin and death or adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes in extremelylow birth weight infants. Acta Paediatr 99: 673-678, 2010]. Thereforeunbound bilirubin should be superior to total bilirubin for identifyingneonates at risk for bilirubin neurotoxicity [Ahlfors C E. Predictingbilirubin neurotoxicity in jaundiced newborns. Curr Opin Pediatr 22:129-133, 2010].

Aggressive phototherapy in premature infants is designed to maintaintotal bilirubin below 5 mg/dL [Morris B H, Oh W, Tyson J E, Stevenson DK, Phelps D L, O'Shea T M, McDavid G E, Perritt R L, Van Meurs K P, VohrB R, Grisby C, Yao Q, Pedroza C, Das A, Poole W K, Carlo W A, Duara S,Laptook A R, Salhab W A, Shankaran S, Poindexter B B, Fanaroff A A,Walsh M C, Rasmussen M R, Stoll B J, Cotten C M, Donovan E F, EhrenkranzR A, Guillet R and Higgins R D. Aggressive vs. conservative phototherapyfor infants with extremely low birth weight. N Engl J Med 359:1885-1896, 2008]. However Morris et al found no difference in outcome(death and neurologic development impairment) for patients treated tomaintain total bilirubin at less than 5 mg/dL and those maintained atless than 8 mg/dL. However a follow up study by these investigatorsfound that outcomes were well correlated with unbound bilirubin but nottotal bilirubin [Oh W, Stevenson D K, Tyson J E, Morris B H, Ahlfors CE, Bender G J, Wong R J, Perritt R, Vohr B R, Van Meurs K P, Vreman H J,Das A, Phelps D L, O'Shea T M and Higgins R D. Influence of clinicalstatus on the association between plasma total and unbound bilirubin anddeath or adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes in extremely low birthweight infants. Acta Paediatr 99: 673-678, 2010]. This suggests thatusing total bilirubin for determining when to deliver phototherapy mayhave been misleading because the levels of total bilirubin were notcoupled to unbound bilirubin, the toxic fraction of bilirubin.Decoupling of total bilirubin and unbound bilirubin may result from thepresence of molecules that interfere significantly with bilirubinbinding to albumin. For example, even if total bilirubin was as low as 1mg/dL, displacement of just 0.2% of total bilirubin by interferingmolecules would result in unbound bilirubin=34 nM. This is an unboundbilirubin level that exceeds that thought to be toxic for term newbornsand it is generally thought that much lower unbound bilirubin levelswould be toxic for premature infants such as those in the Morris et altrial [Morris B H, Oh W, Tyson J E, Stevenson D K, Phelps D L, O'Shea TM, McDavid G E, Perritt R L, Van Meurs K P, Vohr B R, Grisby C, Yao Q,Pedroza C, Das A, Poole W K, Carlo W A, Duara S, Laptook A R, Salhab WA, Shankaran S, Poindexter B B, Fanaroff A A, Walsh M C, Rasmussen M R,Stoll B J, Cotten C M, Donovan E F, Ehrenkranz R A, Guillet R andHiggins R D. Aggressive vs. conservative phototherapy for infants withextremely low birth weight. N Engl J Med 359: 1885-1896, 2008].

Many drugs and metabolites can bind to albumin and as a result,bilirubin is displaced from its bound state on albumin and thereby theunbound concentration of bilirubin is increased whether or not the totalbilirubin concentration increases [Spear M L, Stahl G E, Paul M H, EglerJ M, Pereira G R and Polin R A. The effect of 15-hour fat infusions ofvarying dosage on bilirubin binding to albumin. JPEN J Parenter EnteralNutr 9: 144-147, 1985; Amin S B. Effect of free fatty acids onbilirubin-albumin binding affinity and unbound bilirubin in prematureinfants. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 34: 414-420, 2010]. Especiallyimportant bilirubin displacing metabolites are free fatty acids (FFA).FFA are always present but are maintained at low levels and do not havea significant effect on healthy term newborns. However under conditionsof stress, as for example due to sepsis, FFA levels can increasessignificantly [Nogueira A C, Kawabata V, Biselli P, Lins M H, Valeri C,Seckler M, Hoshino W, Junior L G, Bernik M M, de Andrade Machado J B,Martinez M B, Lotufo P A, Caldini E G, Martins E, Curi R and Soriano FG. Changes in plasma free fatty acid levels in septic patients areassociated with cardiac damage and reduction in heart rate variability.Shock 29: 342-348, 2008]. In addition to disease and stress preterminfants in the NICU can produce extremely large increases in FFA levelsas a consequence of receiving by parenteral nutrition an oil emulsionsuch as Intralipid® [Spear M L, Stahl G E, Paul M H, Egler J M, PereiraG R and Polin R A. The effect of 15-hour fat infusions of varying dosageon bilirubin binding to albumin. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 9:144-147, 1985; Amin S B. Effect of free fatty acids on bilirubin-albuminbinding affinity and unbound bilirubin in premature infants. JPEN JParenter Enteral Nutr 34: 414-420, 2010]. FFA bind albumin with highaffinities similar to bilirubin. Unlike bilirubin, FFA have multiplehigh affinity binding sites so that only when an appreciable fraction ofthe albumin binding sites are occupied by FFA does bilirubindisplacement become significant [Spear M L, Stahl G E, Paul M H, Egler JM, Pereira G R and Polin R A. The effect of 15-hour fat infusions ofvarying dosage on bilirubin binding to albumin. JPEN J Parenter EnteralNutr 9: 144-147, 1985; Amin S B. Effect of free fatty acids onbilirubin-albumin binding affinity and unbound bilirubin in prematureinfants. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 34: 414-420, 2010]. Which newbornsreceiving Intralipid® will produce large enough quantities of FFA cannotbe easily predicted because it depends on gestational age and likely onfactors such as enzymatic activity, adiposity and others [Spear M L,Stahl G E, Paul M H, Egler J M, Pereira G R and Polin R A. The effect of15-hour fat infusions of varying dosage on bilirubin binding to albumin.JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 9: 144-147, 1985; Amin S B. Effect of freefatty acids on bilirubin-albumin binding affinity and unbound bilirubinin premature infants. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 34: 414-420, 2010].It is critical to monitor the unbound concentration of FFA (FFAu) duringlipid infusion because elevated FFAu levels can cause immunesuppression, cardiac damage and reduction in heart rate variability, andelevated levels of unbound bilirubin. In addition, because the unboundlevels of these metabolites are dependent upon many patient-specificfactors, only by directly monitoring unbound bilirubin duringIntralipid® infusion can those infants at risk for bilirubinneurotoxicity be identified. This is particularly true for bilirubinbecause the elevated plasma levels of FFA caused by increasingIntralipid® concentrations produce elevated unbound bilirubinconcentrations without changing the total bilirubin concentration.

Intracellular lipid binding proteins (iLBP) are a family oflow-molecular weight single chain polypeptides. There are fourrecognized subfamilies. Subfamily I contains proteins specific forvitamin A derivatives such as retinoic acid and retinol. Subfamily IIcontains proteins with specificities for bile acids, eiconsanoids, andheme. Subfamily III contains intestinal type fatty acid binding proteins(FABPs) and Subfamily IV contains all other types of fatty acid bindingprotein [Haunerland N H and Spener F. Fatty acid-bindingproteins—insights from genetic manipulations. Prog Lipid Res 43:328-349, 2004] including an FABP that binds bilirubin with low affinity[Di Pietro S M and Santome J A. Isolation, characterization and bindingproperties of two rat liver fatty acid-binding protein isoforms. BiochimBiophys Acta 1478: 186-200, 2000]. The entire family is characterized bya common 3-dimensional fold. Ligand binding properties of the differentsubfamilies overlap considerably. The wild type proteins of subfamily I[Richieri G V, Ogata R T, Zimmerman A W, Veerkamp J H and Kleinfeld A M.Fatty acid binding proteins from different tissues show distinctpatterns of fatty acid interactions. Biochemistry 39: 7197-7204, 2000]and subfamily II both bind fatty acids as well as their native ligands.Moreover, single amino acid substitutions are able to interconvert theligand binding properties of proteins of subfamilies I and II [Jakoby MG, Miller K R, Toner J J, Bauman A, Cheng. L, Li E and Cistola D P.Ligand-protein electrostatic interactions govern the specificity ofretinol- and fatty acid-binding proteins. Biochemistry 32: 872-878,1993].

U.S. Pat. No. 5,470,714, U.S. Pat. No. 6,444,432, U.S. Pat. No.7,601,510 and U.S. publication 2010/0298162 which are incorporatedherein by reference, describe methods for generating probes and theprobes for the determination of unbound analytes. These probes wereconstructed using either native or mutant forms of proteins from theiLBP family. As discussed above, this family includes FABPs [Banaszak L,Winter N, Xu Z, Bernlohr D A, Cowan S and Jones T A. Lipid-bindingproteins A family of fatty acid and retinoid transport proteins. AdvProtein Chem 45: 89-151, 1994; Bernlohr D A, Simpson M A, Hertzel A Vand Banaszak L J. Intracellular lipid-binding proteins and their genes.Annu Rev Nutr 17: 277-303, 1997]. FABPs are intracellular proteins ofapproximately 15 kDa molecular weight and have a binding site that inthe wild type proteins binds 1 or 2 FFA as well as other metabolites.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Embodiments of the invention are directed to the identification ofprobes that are highly specific for unbound bilirubin and the methodsfor using these probes for determining unbound bilirubin concentrationsin samples ranging from simple aqueous solutions to complex biologicalsamples including human fluids (blood, csf, urine, interstitial) whichincludes one or more of the following steps:

-   -   generating the probes using the methods of U.S. Pat. No.        7,601,510 and US publication 2010/0298162 and the method of        generating ratio bilirubin probes by use of a second free        fluorophore or a second fluorophore attached to or embedded in a        solid substrate or polymer, such as a protein, polydextran, or        polystyrene, for example, and calibrating the probes to        determine the dissociation constant using equations (1 to 3),    -   identifying methods for linking probes to solid substrates and        describing properties of such probes in devices and describing        methods for accurate and precise determination of unbound        bilirubin levels in such devices [properties to be determined        include: effects of probe dissociation, albumin buffering,        bilirubin binding to bead not probe, equilibrium rates on beads        compared to solution, relationship of solution to solid        measurements],    -   refining bilirubin probe specificity by a combination of testing        in defined aqueous solutions against a panel of potential        interferants including common metabolites, drugs, bilirubin        photoisomers and conjugated bilirubin and further mutations to        achieve specificity consistent with other analyte contributions        equivalent to less than 1 nM unbound bilirubin or some medically        suitable level,    -   testing quantitation by measurement of unbound bilirubin in        defined human plasma spiked with bilirubin to ensure specificity        for unbound bilirubin in human blood samples,    -   using probes in solution or bound to solid surfaces and        calculating unbound bilirubin concentrations as described in        equations (4 and 5).

Preferred embodiments are directed to probes based upon an iLBP, such asthe lipid binding protein which corresponds to SEQ ID NO: 3 whichincludes one or more amino acid substitutions and a fluorophore.Preferably, the fluorophore is attached to a lysine residue, theN-terminus amino group of the iLBP, or to a cysteine substitution.Preferably, the probe binds to bilirubin but does not significantly bindto fatty acid.

In a preferred embodiment, the probe includes substitutions 14R, 18L,25C, 27A, 38V, 60R, 73F, 106L, 115R, 117D, optionally in combinationwith Rhodamine B (BL22P1B11; SEQ ID NO: 35).

In another preferred embodiment, the probe includes substitutions 14R,18L, 38V, 60R, 73F, 106C, 115R and 117D, optionally in combination withRhodamine B (L24P19C7; SEQ ID NO: 36).

In preferred embodiments, the probe corresponds to the lipid bindingprotein of SEQ ID NO: 3 with one or more amino acid substitutions atpositions selected from 14, 18, 23, 25, 27, 31, 36, 38, 55, 60, 72, 73,74, 78, 102, 104, 106, 115 and 117.

In some preferred embodiments, the fluorophore is attached to a cysteinesubstitution at positions 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 33, 54, 74, 76, 97or 98.

In some preferred embodiments, the fluorophore is attached to a lysinesubstitution at positions 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 33, 54, 74, 76, 97or 98.

In some preferred embodiments, the probe is substituted at positions 7R20R 46R 100R 125R and 130R (KR6), more preferably, 7R 16R 20R 29R 37R46R 50R 88R 92R 94R 100R 125R 129R and 130R (KR14).

In preferred embodiments, the probe includes least one linker. Thelinker(s) may be one or more selected from ACSGGG (SEQ ID NO: 42),SAGCGG (SEQ ID NO: 43), GGGCCG (SEQ ID NO: 44), GSGGCG (SEQ ID NO: 45),DTAGCG (SEQ ID NO: 46), GDCGGG (SEQ ID NO: 47), GCSGAG (SEQ ID NO: 48),GGDGCG (SEQ ID NO: 49), SSNSCG (SEQ ID NO: 50), SDCAYG (SEQ ID NO: 51),DTNCGG (SEQ ID NO: 52), GSGCSG (SEQ ID NO: 53), GCGCGG (SEQ ID NO: 54),ANACGG (SEQ ID NO: 55), GGACGG (SEQ ID NO: 56), GNCGGG (SEQ ID NO: 57),CGGSCG (SEQ ID NO: 58), GSTSCG (SEQ ID NO: 59), DGGCSG (SEQ ID NO: 60),ATSCGG (SEQ ID NO: 61), ASCGYG (SEQ ID NO: 62), DGACGG (SEQ ID NO: 63),GGSGSGSGG (SEQ ID NO: 26), GGGSGGGSGGGTGGGSGGGRRADAA (SEQ ID NO: 27),SRAWRHPQFGG (SEQ ID NO: 28), RAFIASRRIRRP (SEQ ID NO: 29), RLLLRRLRR(SEQ ID NO: 30), RIIIRRIRR (SEQ ID NO: 41), AAS, NDN, PSNTNHNSNSN (SEQID NO: 31), SHRATPNTSPH (SEQ ID NO: 32) and combinations thereof.

Preferably, a polynucleotide template encodes iLBP muteins having acleavable or noncleavable affinity tag. More preferably, the templatepolynucleotide template encodes iLBP muteins having a poly-histidineaffinity tag and the solid matrix includes an immobilized metal chelate.

In preferred embodiments, the iLBP muteins are labeled with a singlefluorophore at a pH of less than 8 so that the fluorophorepreferentially reacts with the cysteine sidechain. Preferably, thefluorophore is acrylodan, danzyl aziridine,4-[N-[(2-iodoacetoxy)ethyl]-N-methylamino]-7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazoleester (IANBDE),4-[N-[(2-iodoacetoxy)ethyl]-N-methylamino-7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazole(IANBDA), Texas Red C2-Maleimide, Lucifer yellow iodoacetamide,Alexafluor 680 maleimide, Kodak X-Sight 670 LSS dye, Texas Red,C5-Bromoacetamide, Alexa Fluor 750 C5-maleimide, or BODIPY 577/618.

In second preferred embodiments, the iLBP muteins are labeled with asingle fluorophore at a pH of greater than 8 so that the fluorophorepreferentially reacts with an amine, such as the protein amino terminusor a lysine sidechain. Preferably, the fluorophore is acrylodan or alonger wavelength absorbing and emitting fluorophore such as Alexa Fluordyes, Bodipy dyes, fluorescein derivatives, rhodamine derivatives, TexasRed, Biotium CF750 SE, Kodak X-Sight 670 LSS dye, LiCor IRDye 680 LT orLiCor IRDye 700DX.

In alternate preferred embodiments, the iLBP muteins are labeled with afirst fluorophore and a second fluorophore. Preferably, the onefluorophore is acrylodan, danzyl aziridine,4-[N-[(2-iodoacetoxy)ethyl]-N-methylamino]-7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazoleester (IANBDE), or4-[N-[(2-iodoacetoxy)ethyl]-N-methylamino-7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazole(IANBDA). Preferably, the other fluorophore is a longer wavelengthabsorbing and emitting fluorophore such as Alexa Fluor dyes, Bodipy,fluorescein derivatives, rhodamine derivatives or Texas Red. In somepreferred embodiments, labeling includes reacting cysteine with thefirst fluorophore at pH less than or equal to 8; and reacting lysinewith the second fluorophore at pH greater than 8. In other preferredembodiments, labeling includes reacting cysteine with the firstfluorophore at pH less than or equal to 8; and reacting the aminoterminus of the iLBP mutein with the second fluorophore at pH greaterthan 8.

In some embodiments of the invention, a second fluorophore is providedby addition of an acceptor protein or peptide domain to each of the iLBPmuteins. Preferably, the acceptor protein or peptide domain is selectedfrom SNAP-tag, CLIP-tag and ACP-tag and the like. In some embodiments,the polynucleotide mutants in the library contain a nucleotide segmentencoding a fluorescent protein. Preferably, the acceptor protein domainor the fluorescent protein has zero or a significantly reduced responsein intensity and/or wavelength of emitted fluorescence upon exposure tobilirubin compared to the fluorescence of the iLBP mutein portion of theprobe.

In some embodiments, the first fluorophore is attached to a lysinesubstitution and the second fluorophore is attached to a cysteinesubstitution which is selected from positions 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29,30, 33, 54, 74, 76, 97 or 98.

Embodiments of the invention are directed to compositions having an iLBPmutein labeled with a first fluorophore and a second fluorophore.Preferably, the second fluorophore is free in solution or attached to aprotein which does not bind bilirubin. Preferably, the first fluorophoreand the second fluorophore are capable of excitation at the samewavelength and the emission wavelength of the first fluorophore and thesecond fluorophore are different. Preferably, the second fluorophore isnot affected (does not change its emission) in response to bilirubinbinding to the iLBP mutein. Preferably, the first fluorophore isacrylodan and the second fluorophore is selected from Rhodamine B, NBD,Lucifer yellow, Texas Red, a Bodipy dye and an Alexa Fluor dye. Morepreferably, the first fluorophore is LiCor 700DX and the secondfluorophore is, for example, Texas Red or an Alexa fluor dye, or aBodipy dye.

In preferred embodiments, a change in ratio of fluorescence index ismeasured at two different wavelengths and used to determine the unboundbilirubin concentration.

In preferred embodiments, the emission intensity of the fluorophore(s)attached to the probes described herein is not affected by theabsorbance of blood components such as bilirubin and hemoglobin.

In some embodiments, the first fluorophore is attached to a cysteine andis selected from acrylodan, danzyl aziridine,4-[N-[(2-iodoacetoxy)ethyl]-N-methylamino]-7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazoleester (IANBDE), and4-[N-[(2-iodoacetoxy)ethyl]-N-methylamino-7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazole(IANBDA) and the second fluorophore is selected from Alexa Fluor dyes,Bodipy, fluorescein derivatives, rhodamine derivatives and Texas Red.

In some embodiments, the first fluorophore is attached to a lysine andis selected from acrylodan, Biotium CF750SE, Kodak X-Sight 670 LSS dye,Licor IR Dye 680 LT and Licor IR Dye 700DX and the second fluorophore isselected from Alexa Fluor dyes, Bodipy, fluorescein derivatives,rhodamine derivatives and Texas Red.

In other preferred embodiments of the invention described here a seconddifferent fluorophore is provided as a soluble molecule free insolution. Such a probe responds to bilirubin binding to the proteinportion of the probe with a change in the ratio of a fluorescence indexmeasured at two different wavelengths. This allows probes that do notreveal a ratio fluorescence index change in response to bilirubinbinding to be converted readily into a ratio probe by using a second butunattached fluorophore that reveals no significant response tobilirubin. The second free fluorophore can have a longer or shorteremission wave length than the first (protein bound) fluorophore but bothfluorophores must have a common excitation wave length. For example insome embodiments the first (protein linked) fluorophore is acrylodan andexamples of the second include but are not limited to Rhodamine B, NBD,Lucifer yellow and Texas Red either free in solution or attached to orembedded in another polymer or solid substrate. This arrangement has theadvantage that the concentration of the free fluorophore can be adjustedso that emission intensities of both fluorophores are similar even whenthe maximum excitation wavelength for the second fluorophore isdifferent than for the first fluorophore. This type of ratio probe usinga second different fluorophore not attached to the probe eliminates theproblem of energy transfer quenching of one of the two fluorophores bythe other, typically when both fluorophores are located on the samemacromolecule such as a protein.

In some embodiments, the second fluorophore is attached to an acceptorprotein or peptide domain on the probe. Preferably, the acceptor proteinor peptide domain is selected from SNAP-tag, CLIP-tag, and ACP-tag.Preferably, the probe includes substitutions 7R 20R 46R 100R 125R and130R (KR6). More preferably, the probe includes substitutions 7R 16R 20R29R 37R 46R 50R 88R 92R 94R 100R 125R 129R and 130R (KR14).

In some embodiments, for any of the probes described above the Nterminus AFD may be substituted with MGIFD (SEQ ID NO: 38), MGCFD (SEQID NO: 39) or MGGSATGIFD (SEQ ID NO: 40), for example.

In some embodiments, the probe includes at least one linker such asACSGGG (SEQ ID NO: 42), SAGCGG (SEQ ID NO: 43), GGGCCG (SEQ ID NO: 44),GSGGCG (SEQ ID NO: 45), DTAGCG (SEQ ID NO: 46), GDCGGG (SEQ ID NO: 47),GCSGAG (SEQ ID NO: 48), GGDGCG (SEQ ID NO: 49), SSNSCG (SEQ ID NO: 50),SDCAYG (SEQ ID NO: 51), DTNCGG (SEQ ID NO: 52), GSGCSG (SEQ ID NO: 53),GCGCGG (SEQ ID NO: 54), ANACGG (SEQ ID NO: 55), GGACGG (SEQ ID NO: 56),GNCGGG (SEQ ID NO: 57), CGGSCG (SEQ ID NO: 58), GSTSCG (SEQ ID NO: 59),DGGCSG (SEQ ID NO: 60), ATSCGG (SEQ ID NO: 61), ASCGYG (SEQ ID NO: 62),DGACGG (SEQ ID NO: 63), GGSGSGSGG (SEQ ID NO: 26),GGGSGGGSGGGTGGGSGGGRRADAA (SEQ ID NO: 27), SRAWRHPQFGG (SEQ ID NO: 28),RAFIASRRIRRP (SEQ ID NO: 29), RLLLRRLRR (SEQ ID NO: 30), RIIIRRIRR (SEQID NO: 41), AAS, NDN, PSNTNHNSNSN (SEQ ID NO: 31), SHRATPNTSPH (SEQ IDNO: 32) or combinations thereof.

Embodiments of the invention are directed to probes in which thefluorophore is attached to a cysteine residue. Preferably, thefluorophore is selected from acrylodan, danzyl aziridine,4-[N-[(2-iodoacetoxy)ethyl]-N-methylamino]-7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazoleester (IANBDE),4-[N-[(2-iodoacetoxy)ethyl]-N-methylamino-7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazole(IANBDA), Texas Red C2-Maleimide, Lucifer yellow iodoacetamide,Alexafluor 680 maleimide, Kodak X-Sight 670 LSS dye, Texas redC2-maleimide, Texas Red C5-Bromoacetamide, Alexa Fluor 750 C5-maleimide,and BODIPY 577/618.

Embodiments of the invention are directed to probes in which thefluorophore is attached to a lysine residue. Preferably, the fluorophoreis selected from of acrylodan, Alexa Fluor dyes, Bodipy, fluoresceinderivatives, rhodamine derivatives, Texas Red, Biotium CF750 SE, KodakX-Sight 670 LSS dye, LiCor IRDye 680 LT, and LiCor IRDye 700DX.

In some embodiments, any of the probes as described above may includetwo or more tags at the C or N-terminus of the probe in combination withone or more linkers for attachment to a solid support.

In preferred embodiments, the probe includes a lysine at position 25labeled with LI-COR 700DX.

In some preferred embodiments, the probe is attached to a solid supportusing two His-tags and two linkers.

In some preferred embodiments, the probe includes one or more tags,preferably selected from his-tag and PS-tags.

Embodiments of the invention are directed to compositions which containone or more probe as described above.

Other preferred embodiments include bilirubin probes that are attachedto solid substrates that include but are not limited to polystyrene orlatex beads and which beads can be immobilized on a surface. Examples ofthe use of such immobilized particles include but are not limited toadhered to the bottom surface of multi-well plates for high-throughputmeasurements or in channels of disposable microfluidics devices.Examples of bilirubin probes that are designed to be immobilized onsurfaces include ones that are linked through chemical reaction witheither cysteine or lysine (first two groups of Table 8) to appropriategroups on the solid support surface as well as those linked throughnon-covalent interactions (the third group of Table 8 and examples 6 and7). Additionally a second fluorophore can be attached or embedded withinthe solid support surface thereby separating the two fluorophores so asto eliminate energy transfer and thereby obtain a ratio response tobilirubin binding. Additionally a second fluorophore can be attached toanother protein, such as an iLBP, or another type of polymer, such asdextran, that does not bind or is unresponsive to bilirubin.

Embodiments of the invention are directed to a solid substrate whichincludes any of the probes described above attached to the solidsubstrate. Preferably, the solid substrate is a polystyrene or latexbead, Ni-agarose bead, optionally with iron core, and/or microfluidicdevice or multiwell plate. The probes selected for attachment to thesolid substrate may contain any of the modifications described abovealone or in combination including but not limited to N-terminalmodifications, linkers and substitutions of surface lysines (KR6 andKR14).

In preferred embodiments, the probe is tagged for attachment to thesolid substrate. In preferred embodiments, the tag includes one or moreof His-tag, biotin, Flag-epitope, c-myc epitope, HA-tag,glutathione-S-transferase (GST), maltose binding protein (MBP), a chitinbinding domain (CBD), Thioredoxin, β-Galactosidase, VSV-Glycoprotein,calmodulin binding protein, a polystyrene (PS) hydrophobic tag, and ametal affinity tag.

In some embodiments, the solid substrate includes a second fluorophore.The second fluorophore may be attached to a protein that does not bindbilirubin.

Preferred embodiments are directed to a solid substrate in which theprobe has a tag and the solid substrate includes a receptor for the tag.Preferably, the tag is a poly-histidine tag and the solid substrateincludes an immobilized metal chelate.

Embodiments of the invention are directed to an iLBP mutein having asingle cysteine or lysine labeled with a fluorescent dye. Preferably,any surface lysines or any other cysteines with fluorescent labelingactivity under cysteine/lysine-specific labeling conditions are replacedwith another amino acid, preferably alanine or arginine. In thepreferred embodiment, which utilizes an iLBP mutein templatecorresponding to SEQ ID NO: 3, the lysine at position 27 is highlyreactive and is mutated, typically to alanine.

In preferred embodiments, bilirubin is complexed with a carriermacromolecule such as albumin, lipid binding proteins, lipid vesicles orcyclodextrin. The complex of bilirubin and the carrier macromoleculebuffers the concentration of the unbound bilirubin which providesclamping of a level of unbound bilirubin. In preferred embodiments, thecarrier macromolecule is albumin. In further preferred embodiments thealbumin is human serum albumin which has a larger affinity for bilirubinthan, for example, bovine serum albumin and is therefore a morepreferred albumin buffer for bilirubin in some embodiments.

In some embodiments the bilirubin absorbance overlaps with theexcitation wavelength of the bilirubin probe's fluorophore and thecalibration is performed in a cuvette where the path length d issufficiently large that inner filter absorbance is significant. In thiscase the emission intensities of the fluorophore must be corrected forinner filter absorbance due to bilirubin absorbance at the excitationwavelength and possibly at the emission wavelength prior to fitting thecalibration equation to the bilirubin probe's titration data or whendetermining the concentration of free (unbound) bilirubin [Bf] withequations 4 or 5. The equation for the corrected emission intensities(I_(λem) ^(Corr)) is:

$\begin{matrix}{I_{\lambda \; {em}}^{Corr} = {I_{\lambda \; {em}}10^{B_{T}{\varepsilon {({\lambda \; {ex}})}}\frac{d}{2}}}} & (1)\end{matrix}$

where I_(λem) is the measured fluorescence emission intensity at thewavelength λ_(em), B_(T) is the total bilirubin concentration, ε(λ_(ex))is the bilirubin extinction coefficient at the excitation or emissionwavelength (λ_(ex)) and d is the cuvette path length. As equation (1)indicates the inner filter correction requires knowledge of the totalbilirubin concentration (B_(T)), which must also be measured in order todetermine [B_(f)]. The inner filter excitation correction is importantfor single fluorophore, non-ratio, bilirubin probes for which equation(2) is used for the calibration.

Embodiments of the invention are directed to methods of calibrating thebilirubin probes by mixing the probe with an aqueous sample ofbilirubin, measuring the fluorescence, and determining the calibrationparameters from the measured fluorescence by fitting with the followingequations 1 and 2 or 3:

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{I_{\lambda \; {em}}}{I_{o}} = {1 - \frac{\left( {K_{d} + B_{t} + P_{T}} \right) - \sqrt{\left( {K_{d} + B_{t} + P_{T}} \right)^{2} - {4B_{T}P_{T}}}}{2P_{T}}}} & (2) \\{R = {- \frac{\begin{matrix}\sqrt{\left( {P_{T}^{2} + {\left( {{2K_{d}} - {2B_{T}}} \right)P_{T}} + K_{d}^{2} + {2B_{T}K_{d}} + B_{T}^{2}} \right)} \\{\left( {{rR}_{o}^{2} - R_{o}} \right) + {\left( {P_{T} + K_{d} - B_{T}} \right){rR}_{o}^{2}} + {\left( {{- P_{T}} + K_{d} + B_{T}} \right)R_{o}}}\end{matrix}}{2\left( {{B_{T}r^{2}R_{o}^{2}} - {\left( {P_{T} + K_{d} + B_{T}} \right){rR}_{o}} + P_{T}} \right)}}} & (3)\end{matrix}$

where I_(λem) is the fluorescence intensity of the probe in the samplewith blank subtracted, I_(o) is the intensity of the probe in theabsence of bilirubin, P_(T) is the total bilirubin probe concentration,B_(T) is the total bilirubin concentration, R is the measuredfluorescence ratio ((I_(λ1)/I_(λ2)) where I_(λ1) is the fluorescenceintensity from the first fluorophore at wavelength λ1 and I_(λ2) is thefluorescence intensity from the second fluorophore at wavelength λ2,R_(o) is the ratio in the absence of bilirubin, r is the I_(λ2)/I_(λ1)ratio of the probe in the absence of the second fluorophore, and K_(d)is the dissociation constant.

Embodiments of the invention are directed to methods of measuring theconcentration of free bilirubin [Bf] by following a combination of thefollowing steps which include optionally measuring the fluorescence ofthe sample, mixing the probe with a sample, and measuring thefluorescence, optionally, subtracting the sample from probe with samplefluorescence and determining the concentration of [Bf] from the measuredfluorescence.

In preferred embodiments, at least one of the following equations 4-6 isused to calibrate the probe and/or measure [Bf]:

$\begin{matrix}{\left\lbrack B_{f} \right\rbrack = {{K_{d}\left( {\frac{I_{o}}{I_{\lambda \; {em}}} - 1} \right)}.}} & (4) \\{\left\lbrack B_{f} \right\rbrack = {K_{d}\left( \frac{\left( {R - R_{o}} \right)}{\left( {{RrR}_{o} - R} \right)} \right)}} & (5)\end{matrix}$

where, I_(λem) is the fluorescence intensity of the probe in the samplewith blank subtracted, I_(o) is the intensity of the probe in theabsence of bilirubin, R is the measured fluorescence ratio((I_(λ1)/I_(λ2)) where I_(λ1) is the fluorescence intensity from thefirst fluorophore at wavelength λ1 and I_(λ2) is the fluorescenceintensity from the second fluorophore at wavelength λ2, R_(o) is theratio in the absence of bilirubin, r is the I_(λ2)/I_(λ1) ratio of theprobe in the absence of the second fluorophore, K_(d) is thedissociation constant, and Is is the emission intensity at bilirubinsaturation of the probe.

In some embodiments, the probe has two fluorophores or a combination ofa probe with one fluorophore and a second fluorophore either free insolution or attached to a polymer such as a protein which does not bindbilirubin. In some embodiments a probe with one fluorophore which bindsor responds to bilirubin is attached to a solid substrate and a secondfluorophore is attached to another protein that is also attached to thesolid substrate but that doesn't bind or respond to bilirubin.

In some embodiments, the probe has a single fluorophore and the methodincludes one or more steps for correcting for inner filter excitation.

In preferred embodiments, the sample comprises a carrier macromoleculefor the bilirubin such as albumin, lipid binding proteins, lipidvesicles or cyclodextrin.

In some embodiments, the probe is attached to a solid support. In somepreferred embodiments, microfluidics allows measurements of undilutedblood samples.

Preferably, the sample is from a human, an animal or a plant. Inpreferred embodiments, the sample is from whole blood, blood plasma,blood serum, urine, CSF, saliva, gastric juices, interstitial fluid orlymph. In some embodiments, the sample is from patients receivingintravenous infusion of oil emulsions. In some embodiments, the sampleis from patients that may be producing, from disease or stress,molecules that displace bilirubin from albumin. In some embodiments, thesample is from patients that are undergoing phototherapy, transfusion orother therapies that reduce bilirubin levels.

Embodiments of the invention are directed to methods for measuring theconcentration of unbound FFA in a blood sample from patients receivingintravenous infusion of an oil emulsion by one or more of the followingsteps:

-   -   optionally, measuring the fluorescence of the sample    -   mixing the sample and an FFAu probe,    -   measuring the probe fluorescence, and    -   calculating the FFAu concentration.

In some embodiments, the risk of damage to the patient based upon theFFAu concentration is determined and treatment is provided to prevent,treat, or reduce the risk of the damage.

Embodiments of the invention are directed to a kit which may include oneor more collection devices for collecting a sample from a patient, oneor more probes as described above or a composition containing one ormore probes in a suitable carrier, and optionally, a reference standardcomprising a known concentration of unbound bilirubin.

Embodiments of the invention are directed to probes as defined in any ofTables 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 10.

Embodiments of the invention are directed to methods to determine riskof unbound bilirubin and/or unbound FFA toxicity in patients receiving afat emulsion (Intralipid®) which includes one or more of the followingsteps:

-   -   obtaining a sample from the patient,    -   contacting the sample with one or more probes such as ADIFAB2,        L19CP10C7, L138P1H8N24C, L22P5E11, L61P8B12, L4BP4B9, and        L119P3E5 to determine levels of one or more FFAu,    -   determining levels of unbound bilirubin, and    -   comparing FFAu and unbound bilirubin levels to levels obtained        from a normal population to determine risk of toxicity.

Embodiments of the invention are directed to a solid substrate whichincludes a probe such as an iLBP, where the lipid binding proteincorresponds to SEQ ID NO: 3 having one or more amino acid substitutionsand a fluorophore. Preferably, the fluorophore is attached to a lysineresidue, the N-terminus amino group of the iLBP, or to a cysteinesubstitution. Preferably, the probe binds to fatty acid and is attachedto the solid substrate, Preferably the solid substrate is a polystyreneor latex bead, Ni-agarose bead, optionally with iron core, microfluidicdevice, or multiwell plate.

In preferred embodiments, the probe attached to the solid substrate hasa modified N terminus in which AFD of the probe is substituted withMGIFD (SEQ ID NO: 38), MGCFD (SEQ ID NO: 39), or MGGSATGIFD (SEQ ID NO:40).

Preferably, the probe attached to the solid substrates has modificationsof surface lysines such as substitutions 7R 20R 46R 100R 125R and 130R(KR6), more preferably substitutions 7R 16R 20R 29R 37R 46R 50R 88R 92R94R 100R 125R 129R and 130R (KR14).

In preferred embodiments, the probe attached to the solid substrateincludes at least one linker such as ACSGGG (SEQ ID NO: 42), SAGCGG (SEQID NO: 43), GGGCCG (SEQ ID NO: 44), GSGGCG (SEQ ID NO: 45), DTAGCG (SEQID NO: 46), GDCGGG (SEQ ID NO: 47), GCSGAG (SEQ ID NO: 48), GGDGCG (SEQID NO: 49), SSNSCG (SEQ ID NO: 50), SDCAYG (SEQ ID NO: 51), DTNCGG (SEQID NO: 52), GSGCSG (SEQ ID NO: 53), GCGCGG (SEQ ID NO: 54), ANACGG (SEQID NO: 55), GGACGG (SEQ ID NO: 56), GNCGGG (SEQ ID NO: 57), CGGSCG (SEQID NO: 58), GSTSCG (SEQ ID NO: 59), DGGCSG (SEQ ID NO: 60), ATSCGG (SEQID NO: 61), ASCGYG (SEQ ID NO: 62), DGACGG (SEQ ID NO: 63), GGSGSGSGG(SEQ ID NO: 26), GGGSGGGSGGGTGGGSGGGRRADAA (SEQ ID NO: 27), SRAWRHPQFGG(SEQ ID NO: 28), RAFIASRRIRRP (SEQ ID NO: 29), RLLLRRLRR (SEQ ID NO:30), RIIIRRIRR (SEQ ID NO: 41), AAS, NDN, PSNTNHNSNSN (SEQ ID NO: 31),SHRATPNTSPH (SEQ ID NO: 32) and combinations thereof.

In preferred embodiments, the probe attached to the solid substrate istagged for attachment to the solid substrate. Preferably, the tagincludes one or more of His-tag, biotin, Flag-epitope, c-myc epitope,HA-tag, glutathione-S-transferase (GST), maltose binding protein (MBP),a chitin binding domain (CBD), Thioredoxin, β-Galactosidase,VSV-Glycoprotein, calmodulin binding protein, a polystyrene (PS)hydrophobic tag, and a metal affinity tag.

In some preferred embodiments, the solid substrate includes a secondfluorophore, optionally attached to a protein that does not bind FFAu.

In preferred embodiments, the probe attached to the solid substrateincludes a tag and the solid substrate has a receptor for the tag.Preferably, the tag is a poly-histidine tag and the solid substrateincludes an immobilized metal chelate.

Further aspects, features and advantages of this invention will becomeapparent from the detailed description of the preferred embodimentswhich follow.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

These and other feature of this invention will now be described withreference to the drawings of preferred embodiments which are intended toillustrate and not to limit the invention.

FIG. 1A shows I₅₂₅/I₀ versus bilirubin concentration for probe L24P19C7(SEQ ID NO: 36). FIG. 1B shows measured free bilirubin concentrations[B_(f)] versus oleate concentration for probe L24P19C7 (SEQ ID NO: 36)in the presence and absence of bilirubin (3 μM). FIG. 1C shows freebilirubin concentrations [B_(f)] versus increasing concentration ofadded bilirubin for probe L24P19C7 (SEQ ID NO: 36).

FIG. 2 shows I₅₂₅/I₀ versus bilirubin concentration for probe L24P19C7(SEQ ID NO: 36)-Xc, where Xc denotes different single cysteine positionslabeled with acrylodan.

FIG. 3 shows results in spiked adult serum. I₅₂₅/I₀ versus increasingconcentration of added bilirubin for probe BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35) isshown.

FIG. 4 shows calibration of the BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)-Rh probecarried out by measuring the I₅₂₅/I₅₇₅ ratio with increasing totalbilirubin. Fitting the titration curve with equation (3) is used todetermine Kd.

FIG. 5 shows that binding of ditaurobilirubin (K_(d)=300 nM), a modelfor conjugated bilirubin, to the bilirubin probe BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO:35)-Rh, is about 19 fold weaker than for the binding of unconjugatedbilirubin (K_(d)=16 nM).

FIG. 6 shows that BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)-Rh monitors the decrease inunbound bilirubin with increasing exposure of bilirubin to 460 nmirradiation. This implies that BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)-Rh isinsensitive to the presence of photo-oxidation products and photoisomersof bilirubin that are produced upon 460 nm radiation and shouldtherefore provide a method for accurately monitoring the effectivenessof phototherapy for treating bilirubin toxicity.

FIG. 7 shows measurements of [Bf] carried out using BL22P1B11 (SEQ IDNO: 35)-Rh in either a Fluorolog3 (JY Horiba) (♦) using 10×10 mmcuvettes or in a FFAu Meter (FFA Sciences) (∘) modified for measuringunbound bilirubin by replacing emission filters with ones centered at525 and 580 nm. Measurements of [Bf] were also performed on the samesamples using the peroxidase method of [Jacobsen J and Wennberg R P.Determination of unbound bilirubin in the serum of newborns. Clin Chem20: 783, 1974] (▴). The results indicate virtually identical results forall 3 measurements and good agreement of the measured and resultspredicted for bilirubin binding to a single human albumin site with aKd=20 nM.

FIG. 8 shows bilirubin quenching results for the probe PS19-1immobilized on Ni-agarose beads immobilized in a “well” of a set ofmicrochannel disposable cartridges designed for fluorometricmeasurements. Bilirubin spiked adult human blood plasma samples of 20μL, undiluted, were added to the cartridges and quenching of the DX700fluorescence by unbound bilirubin was fit to the data using equation (5)to determine the K_(d).

FIG. 9 shows the calibration of the BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO:35)-Dextran-Texas Red probe carried out by measuring the I₅₂₅/I₆₁₅ ratiowith increasing total bilirubin. Fitting the titration curve withequation (3) is used to determine the Kd.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

While the described embodiment represents the preferred embodiment ofthe present invention, it is to be understood that those skilled in theart can modify the process without departing from the spirit of theinvention.

For purposes of the present disclosure, “analytes” are molecules whosemolecular weight is approximately 2000 Da or less and unbound analytesare these molecules in aqueous solution. These include metabolites andphysiologically important molecules that occur naturally in the courseof human or animal physiology or pathophysiology, and drug molecules andtheir metabolic products and nutrient molecules and their metabolicproducts. Depending upon their solubility, a fraction of each analyte ispresent as monomers in aqueous solution (either charged or neutral).This fraction is referred to as the “free or unbound analyte” fractionand includes unbound metabolites (METu).

For purposes of the present disclosure bilirubin is unconjugatedbilirubin IXα [McDonagh A F, Vreman H J, Wong R J and Stevenson D K.Photoisomers: obfuscating factors in clinical peroxidase measurements ofunbound bilirubin? Pediatrics 123: 67-76, 2009]. Unbound bilirubin isthe aqueous monomer of the unconjugated bilirubin IXα, as distinct frombilirubin that in blood plasma is generally found bound to albumin.

For the purposes of the present disclosure, the term “lipid” is taken tohave its usual and customary meaning and defines a chemical compoundwhich is most soluble in an organic solvent but has some level ofsolubility in the aqueous phase (the fraction that is unbound).Accordingly, a “lipid-binding protein” includes any protein capable ofbinding a lipid as lipid is defined herein.

Levels of unbound molecules, such as for example bilirubin, lipids,including fatty acids, hormones and metabolic products, can provideinformation diagnostic of health and disease when measured inappropriate human or animal fluids. It is increasingly apparent thatdetermination of the unbound (a.k.a ‘aqueous phase’ or ‘free’)concentration of such molecules provides critical information aboutphysiologic homeostasis. Many metabolites are hydrophobic molecules withlow aqueous solubility and unbound concentrations that are much lowerthan their “total” concentration, where the bulk of the “total” may bebound to proteins or cells. In biological fluids the concentration ofthe unbound molecules is often regulated to maintain a relativelyconstant unbound concentration under normal physiologic conditions. Thisregulation occurs through the interaction of the molecules with acarrier protein such as for example, albumin. Thus most of the moleculesare generally bound to albumin, or other carriers. However a smallfraction of the molecules may dissociate (and rebind) from the albumininto the aqueous phase and these are the unbound molecules.

For the purposes of the present disclosure “bilirubin probes” are iLBPsthat are fluorescently labeled at one or more cysteine or lysineresidues and that undergo a change in a fluorescence index upon bindingbilirubin. A bilirubin probe may also be an iLBP fluorescently labeledat a cysteine residue with one fluorophore and at a different,preferably lysine, residue with a different fluorophore so that if thefluorescence of only one of the fluorophores changes upon bindingbilirubin the ratio of fluorescence indices at 2 wavelengths will bedifferent. A bilirubin probe may also comprise an iLBP fluorescentlylabeled at a cysteine or lysine residue with additional fluorescenceprovided by a second fluorophore that is not attached to the probeprotein. In this case, if the fluorescence of only one of thefluorophores changes upon binding bilirubin the ratio of fluorescenceindices at 2 wavelengths will be different. The second fluorophore maybe a fluorescent molecule free in aqueous solution or may be attached toa larger molecule, such as an iLBP, that is not responsive and/or doesnot bind to bilirubin or the second fluorophore may be attached to asurface or the non-responsive molecule attached to the secondfluorophore, may be attached to the surface. Such probes may be used todetermine specifically the aqueous concentration of unbound bilirubin,which is otherwise difficult because of its poor solubility propertiesin aqueous solutions and because of the presence of other metabolitesespecially free fatty acids. A change in the ratio of the fluorescenceresponse is especially important for the accurate determination of theintracellular concentrations of unbound bilirubin and is important forimproving the accuracy and precision of the determination of theextracellular concentrations of unbound bilirubin.

Unfortunately, despite the availability of protein structures andco-complex structures with ligands of interest, existing state of theart of molecular theory is not sufficient to design probes with anydesired metabolite specificity and sensitivity de novo. Thus, extensiveexperimentation is typically required to find mutant protein probes thatnot only bind with the desired specificity, but also produce therequired change in signal indicative of ligand binding. Screening even asingle protein for its binding affinity for bilirubin and specificity toa range of additional analytes requires extensive time for proteinpurification, the development of methods to measure binding of differentanalytes and the measurement of each analyte's binding isotherms.[Systematic high throughput screening of mutant proteins is not possiblebecause in general mutant proteins without a fluorescence label do notelicit a measurable signal upon analyte binding.] Once theprotein-analyte interaction is characterized additional experimentationis required for the fluorophore reaction chemistry and the probefluorescence response characterization. Moreover, in general theanalyte-protein binding properties are different than those for theanalyte-probe interaction. Thus the probe developed using a protein,found after extensive experimentation to have the desired bindingspecificity for bilirubin, may not generate a significant fluorescencechange upon bilirubin binding. Instead, what is needed are methods torapidly generate and screen thousands of resulting mutant probes.

U.S. Pat. No. 7,601,510 and U.S. publication 2010/0298162 which areincorporated herein by reference, and [Huber A H, Kampf J P, Kwan T, ZhuB and Kleinfeld A M. Fatty acid-specific fluorescent probes and theiruse in resolving mixtures of different unbound free fatty acids inequilibrium with albumin. Biochemistry 45: 14263-14274, 2006] describemethods for high throughput generation of probes that allow for thedevelopment of probes with high specificity for the determination ofunbound analytes. Both U.S. Pat. No. 7,601,510 and U.S. publication2010/0298162 describe the development of bilirubin specific probes. Thecurrent invention relates to critical improvements in the bilirubintechnology described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,601,510 and U.S. publication2010/0298162 that improve the accuracy and precision for thedetermination of unbound bilirubin levels and that allow the technologyto be used in different instrumentation formats. [Importantly, theseprevious bilirubin probes described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,601,510 and U.S.publication 2010/0298162 were not ratio probes. The current inventionrelates to the novel method of generating ratio probes by a using asecond fluorophore that is not attached to the bilirubin sensitive probeto which the first fluorophore is attached. The current invention alsorelates to the surprising quenching of long wavelength probes bybilirubin. In addition the invention relates to methods of attachingbilirubin and FFAu probes to solid surfaces and using such compositionsfor measuring unbound bilirubin and FFAu in microfluidics devices anddisposable sample cartridges.

Bilirubin probes are used to determine unbound bilirubin levels in bloodsamples and fatty acids are the most abundant metabolite in blood thathave properties similar to bilirubin. Fatty acids compete with bilirubinfor binding to albumin and have unbound concentrations that are similarto bilirubin. Bilirubin probes are developed starting with iLBP mutantsthat generally have high affinity for fatty acids. Thus the first stepin discovering bilirubin probes from iLBP mutein probes is the screeningof more than 300,000 such probes with up to 11 of the most abundantfatty acids to identify probes that do not significantly respond tofatty acids. More than 10,000 such fatty acid non-responders(“non-responder library”) have been identified by ΔR/ΔR_(ADIFAB2) (U.S.Pat. No. 7,601,510)<0.1. This quantitative benchmark indicates that theaffinity of these probes for fatty acids are in general at least 10 foldsmaller than for ADIFAB2 reference probe. Screening these non-responderprobes with bilirubin identifies potential bilirubin probes and/ortemplates that are used for the generation of new mutein probe librariesby further mutagenesis of the newly identified template protein. Thisnew library is screened for response to fatty acids and bilirubin andthe probes identified as most responsive to bilirubin and leastresponsive to fatty acids are either identified as bilirubin probes ormay be used for further rounds of mutagenesis and screening.

Bilirubin probes identified by these methods to have useful properties,including a significant response to bilirubin and zero to low responseto fatty acids are further characterized. A probe that does not respondsignificantly to FFA means that binding to FFA is 10 times less thanbinding to bilirubin. Preferably, binding to FFA is 100 times less thanbinding to bilirubin. This includes calibration to determine probebilirubin binding affinity and fluorescence characteristics, as well asmonitoring unbound bilirubin levels in aqueous solutions containingbilirubin and human serum albumin in order to identify potentialcompetition with fatty acids. Non-responsive probes might be generatedin which fatty acids bind to the probe but do not generate a change influorescence. In this case fatty acids in blood samples might competewith bilirubin for binding to the probe and thereby result in aninaccurate determination of the unbound bilirubin levels. Competitionwith fatty acids is evaluated by determining whether the fluorescenceresponse of a bilirubin probe plus bilirubin is altered by addition offatty acids.

Bilirubin probes found by the above methods to yield accurate bilirubinconcentrations in solutions with bilirubin and albumin and which do notexhibit detectable fatty acid competition are selected for furthertesting in human blood samples. Blood plasma samples from individualdonors as well as pooled samples from commercial sources are used todetermine whether the bilirubin probes provide accurate plasma unboundbilirubin concentrations in samples that have essentially unknown levelsof analytes commonly present in human blood samples. This isaccomplished by determining the albumin concentration in each sample andtitrating the blood samples with bilirubin to obtain well-definedbilirubin:albumin ratios. The concentration of unbound bilirubin is thenmeasured with the probe and the results compared with a) the unboundbilirubin concentrations measured in aqueous bilirubin-albumin solutionshaving the same bilirubin:albumin ratios and b) with unbound bilirubinconcentrations determined using the peroxidase assay [Jacobsen J andWennberg R P. Determination of unbound bilirubin in the serum ofnewborns. Clin Chem 20: 783, 1974]. Equivalence of the probe determinedplasma unbound bilirubin concentrations with those determined inbilirubin-albumin solutions and with the peroxidase assay confirms thatblood components other than unbound bilirubin have no detectable effecton the probe performance.

An important aspect of U.S. Pat. No. 7,601,510 and U.S. publication2010/0298162 is that they allow the previously necessary and very timeconsuming step of characterization of bilirubin binding to the proteinto be omitted; only the probe itself is characterized. This is importantnot only for the avoidance of the protein characterization step but alsobecause the properties of the probe are often not predictable from theligand-protein binding characteristics. For example, different proteinscan have very similar binding affinities but the fluorescence responseof their derivative probes can be quite different.

Bilirubin probes described previously were labeled only with acrylodan,primarily at lysine 27 of SEQ 3: (U.S. Pat. No. 7,601,510). Additionalbilirubin probes were labeled with two different fluorophores, acrylodanat lysine 27 of SEQ 3: and Texas red maleimide at the cysteine of an Nterminal MGCFD adduct in two versions one without and the other with theKR14 (“KR14” is an abbreviation that refers to the mutation of thefollowing 14 surface lysines to arginine in SEQ 3: 7R 16R 20R 29R 37R46R 50R 88R 92R 94R 100R 125R) substitution that reduces multipleacrylodan labeling (U.S. publication 2010/0298162). These probes havegood affinities and responses to bilirubin and were not significantlyaffected by non-bilirubin metabolites in human blood samples. Howeverthe acrylodan-only probes may be adversely affected bybilirubin-mediated excitation inner filter effect in samples with highbilirubin concentrations, a condition in severe neonatalhyperbilirubinemia [Bhutani V K and Johnson L. The Jaundiced Newborn inthe Emergency Department: Prevention of Kernicterus. Clin Ped Emerg Med9:149-159, 2008], and by the presence of hemoglobin in the blood sample.Double labeled probes with acrylodan plus a longer wavelengthfluorophore, such as Texas Red, can have severely reduced acrylodanfluorescence intensities due to energy transfer between acrylodan andthe secondary fluorophore.

To overcome these deficiencies and to extend the spectrum of instrumentson which the bilirubin probes can be used, the present inventiondescribes new probes and new forms of the assay for determining unboundbilirubin levels. New mutein libraries were identified in which thefluorophore quenched by bilirubin labels either a single cysteine orlysine side chain and the position of this side chain is found to beimportant for optimizing the fluorescence change upon bilirubin binding.Also identified are bilirubin probes in which the fluorophore quenchedby bilirubin labels one or more cysteine or lysine side chains but wherethe position of one of the side chains is found to be important foroptimizing the fluorescence change upon bilirubin binding. Alsodiscovered are bilirubin quenchable fluorophores that absorb and emit atlong wave lengths where bilirubin quenching by Förster type energytransfer should not occur. Bilirubin binding produces virtually completequenching of acrylodan and other fluorophores whose emission occurs inthe range of approximately 380 nm to 550 nm, which is expected becauseof the high degree of Förster type energy transfer due to the largeoverlap of acrylodan and the emissions of other fluorophores withbilirubin absorbance. Entirely unexpected was the discovery offluorescence quenching by bilirubin of very long wavelength fluorophoresincluding those extending into the infrared (TABLES 5 and 7). Because oftheir long wavelength absorbance and fluorescence such fluorophores areunaffected by bilirubin or hemoglobin absorbance or that of virtuallyany other chromophore potentially present in blood samples.

Additional embodiments of the invention described here are methods togenerate bilirubin ratio probes that are generated with a singlefluorophore on the protein and with a second different fluorophoreeither (a) free in solution, (b) attached to a larger molecule, such aspolymer, that is not responsive and/or does not bind to bilirubin, (c)embedded in resin or polymer, or (d) attached, directly or indirectly,to a surface. Such a probe responds to bilirubin binding to the proteinportion of the probe with a change in the ratio of a fluorescence indexmeasured at two different wavelengths. This also allows probes that donot reveal a ratio fluorescence index change in response to bilirubinbinding to be converted readily into a ratio probe by using a second butunattached fluorophore that reveals no significant response tobilirubin. This type of ratio probe, one that uses an independent secondfluorophore, eliminates the problem of energy transfer quenching betweenfluorophores that is typically observed when both fluorophores arelocated on the same macromolecule such as a protein. This quenchinggreatly reduces the signal intensity and thereby diminishes the accuracyand precision of the measurement of the unbound bilirubin concentration.This avoidance of energy transfer is accomplished by not attaching bothfluorophores to the same probe molecule. Otherwise the avoidance ofenergy transfer would need to be accomplished by spatially restrictingthe fluorophores when the second fluorophore is attached to the samesmall protein.

Also described are bilirubin probes that can attached to solidsubstrates such as polystyrene or latex beads and which beads can beimmobilized on a surface for use in disposable microfluidics devices.Additionally a second fluorophore can be attached or embedded within thebeads thereby separating the two fluorophores so as to eliminate energytransfer and thereby obtain a ratio response to bilirubin binding.Alternatively the second fluorophore can be attached to an iLBP or anyother polymer that is not responsive to and/or does not bind bilirubinand which iLBP or other polymer is attached to the solid substrate sothat the two fluorophores remain sufficiently separated so that energytransfer is not significant.

Also described are analytical/mathematical methods for calibrating andusing the bilirubin probes. Bilirubin probes are calibrated to determinetheir binding affinity for bilirubin (dissociation constant K_(d)) underconditions, such as temperature, pH and solution composition, thatcorrespond to samples in which it is desired to know the unboundbilirubin concentration. Binding isotherms are performed in aqueousbuffer by measuring the change in fluorescence of the bilirubin probesin response to increasing bilirubin concentrations (“titration data”).The set of fluorescence responses at each bilirubin concentration arefitted with an appropriate equation (“calibration equation”) thatcorrectly describes the fluorescence response as a function of thebilirubin concentration, the probe concentration, specific spectroscopiccharacteristics, and the K_(d).

In some embodiments the bilirubin absorbance overlaps with theexcitation wavelength of the bilirubin probe's fluorophore and thecalibration is performed in a cuvette where the path length d issufficiently large that inner filter absorbance is significant. In thiscase the emission intensities of the fluorophore must be corrected forinner filter absorbance due to bilirubin absorbance at the excitationwavelength and possibly at the emission wavelength prior to fitting thecalibration equation to the bilirubin probe's titration data. Theequation for the corrected emission intensities (I_(λem) ^(Corr)) is:

$\begin{matrix}{I_{\lambda \; {em}}^{Corr} = {I_{\lambda \; {em}}10^{B_{T}{\varepsilon {({\lambda \; {ex}})}}\frac{d}{2}}}} & (1)\end{matrix}$

where I_(λem) is the measured fluorescence emission intensity at thewavelength λ_(em), B_(T) is the total bilirubin concentration, ε(λ_(ex))is the bilirubin extinction coefficient at the excitation or emissionwavelength (λ_(ex)) and d is the cuvette path length. As equation (1)indicates the inner filter correction requires knowledge of the totalbilirubin concentration (B_(T)), which must also be measured in order todetermine [B_(f)].

The inner filter excitation correction is important for singlefluorophore, non-ratio, bilirubin probes for which the calibrationequation is:

$\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{\frac{I_{\lambda \; {em}}}{I_{o}} = {1 - \frac{\left( {K_{d} + B_{t} + P_{T}} \right) - \sqrt{\left( {K_{d} + B_{t} + P_{T}} \right)^{2} - {4B_{T}P_{T}}}}{2P_{T}}}} & \;\end{matrix} & (2)\end{matrix}$

where I_(λem) is the fluorescence intensity of the probe in the samplewith blank (sample without bilirubin probe) subtracted, and if innerfilter absorbance is significant I_(λem) ^(Corr) from equation (1) mustbe substituted for I_(λem) in equation (2), I_(o) is the intensity ofthe probe in the absence of bilirubin, P_(T) is the total bilirubinprobe concentration and B_(T) is the total bilirubin concentration.

The inner filter excitation correction is important for singlefluorophore probes but does not affect the response of ratio bilirubinprobes, which respond to bilirubin by a change in the ratio offluorescence emissions (Iλ1/Iλ2) at two wavelengths λ1 and λ2. Theratio, or R value, is equal to Iλ1/Iλ2. Bilirubin titration of the ratioprobe to determine the Kd, is well described by the followingcalibration equation (3):

$\begin{matrix}{R = {- \frac{\begin{matrix}\sqrt{\left( {P_{T}^{2} + {\left( {{2K_{d}} - {2B_{T}}} \right)P_{T}} + K_{d}^{2} + {2B_{T}K_{d}} + B_{T}^{2}} \right)} \\{\left( {{rR}_{o}^{2} - R_{o}} \right) + {\left( {P_{T} + K_{d} - B_{T}} \right){rR}_{o}^{2}} + {\left( {{- P_{T}} + K_{d} + B_{T}} \right)R_{o}}}\end{matrix}}{2\left( {{B_{T}r^{2}R_{o}^{2}} - {\left( {P_{T} + K_{d} + B_{T}} \right){rR}_{o}} + P_{T}} \right)}}} & (3)\end{matrix}$

where R is the measured fluorescence ratio ((I_(λ1)/I_(λ2)), R_(o) isthe ratio in the absence of bilirubin, r is the (I_(λ2)/I_(λ1)) ratio ofthe probe in the absence of the second fluorophore, B_(T), P_(T), andK_(d) are the same as in equation (2).

Free bilirubin concentrations ([B_(f)]) are determined in samples inwhich [B_(f)] is buffered by the HSA binding equilibrium and istherefore not perturbed by the presence of the bilirubin probe. Thefollowing equations are for single (4) fluorophore and ratio (5) probesrespectively:

$\begin{matrix}{\left\lbrack B_{f} \right\rbrack = {{K_{d}\left( {\frac{I_{o}}{I_{\lambda \; {em}}} - 1} \right)}.}} & (4) \\{and} & \; \\{\left\lbrack B_{f} \right\rbrack = {K_{d}\left( \frac{\left( {R - R_{o}} \right)}{\left( {{RrR}_{o} - R} \right)} \right)}} & (5)\end{matrix}$

Preferred embodiments of the present invention relate to the developmentof fluorescent protein molecules that can be used to determine theconcentration of unbound analytes. More particularly, the inventionrelates to 1) Identification of bilirubin probes generated by themethods of U.S. Pat. No. 7,601,510 and U.S. publication 2010/0298162which are incorporated herein by reference and modifications of thesemethods are also described, 2) the use of such probes for clinicalmedicine and basic science, 3) examples of these probes for thedetermination of the unbound bilirubin concentration in differentfluids.

Bilirubin probes are iLBP proteins that have been ‘labeled’ through thecovalent addition of one or more fluorescent molecule(s)(fluorophore(s)) that exhibit a change in a fluorescent index uponbinding bilirubin. In preferred embodiments, the probe contains either asingle cysteine or a single accessible lysine to which a fluorophore iscovalently attached. In other preferred embodiments, the probe includesone fluorophore attached to a cysteine and a second fluorophore attachedto a different site, preferably a lysine site, on the protein whichbinds bilirubin. In other preferred embodiments the probe includes onefluorophore attached to a cysteine and a second fluorophore attached toa different site, preferably a terminal amino group, on the proteinwhich binds bilirubin.

In some embodiments, two different fluorophores are used, preferablyattached to a cysteine and a lysine or to a cysteine and an N-terminusamino group. One of the two fluorophores is responsive to bilirubinbinding, that is, demonstrating a change in a fluorescence index uponbinding of bilirubin to the probe. The second fluorophore may besensitive to bilirubin binding but it is not necessary for the secondfluorophore to be responsive to binding of bilirubin. The secondfluorophore provides a reference point so that a difference in ratio offluorescence at two different wavelengths is observed upon bilirubinbinding. The second fluorophore may not react to the bilirubin bindingor may react in a different manner from the first fluorophore.Preferably, the second fluorophore has an emission point at a differentwavelength relative to the first fluorophore. Examples of chemical dyeswhich may be used as a second fluorophore according to the inventioninclude but are not limited to Alexa Fluor dyes, Bodipy dyes,fluorescein derivatives, rhodamine derivatives and Texas red. In apreferred embodiment, the second fluorophore is Texas red.

In some embodiments, two different fluorophores are used in which onefluorophore is attached to a cysteine or a lysine or the N-terminusamino group and this fluorophore is responsive to bilirubin binding,that is, demonstrating a change in a fluorescence index upon binding ofbilirubin to the fluorescently labeled iLBP mutein, The secondfluorophore is not chemically linked to the iLBP mutein and is notsensitive to bilirubin binding to the iLBP mutein. The secondfluorophore provides a reference point so that a difference in ratio offluorescence at two different wavelengths is observed upon bilirubinbinding. In one embodiment the second fluorophore is soluble and ismixed together with the fluorescently labeled iLBP mutein at a definedstoichiometry of fluorescently labeled iLBP mutein to the second solublefluorophore. This mixture may be maintained in solution or dried orlyophilized and then reconstituted when needed. This mixture constitutesa bilirubin probe that responds by a difference in ratio of fluorescenceat two different wavelengths. This configuration of a bilirubin probewith a soluble second fluorophore is advantageous because the absorbancespectrum of a second longer wavelength fluorophore may overlap with theemission of the first shorter wavelength fluorophore. This cansignificantly quench the fluorescence of the first fluorophore, andthereby diminish the signal quality of the probe response, when both arechemically attached to the same iLBP protein. An additional advantage isthat the stoichiometry of the first to the second fluorophore is moreeasily regulated and simpler to prepare than for the stoichiometrydependent on the two separate chemical reactions of the first and secondfluorophore with the iLBP mutein. Preferably, the second fluorophore hasan emission point at a longer wavelength relative to the firstfluorophore. Examples of chemical dyes which may be used as the firstfluorophore include but are not limited to acrylodan, danzyl aziridine,4-[N-[(2-iodoacetoxy)ethyl]-N-methylamino]-7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazoleester (IANBDE), or4-[N-[(2-iodoacetoxy)ethyl]-N-methylamino-7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazole(IANBDA). Examples of chemical dyes which may be used as a secondfluorophore according to the invention include but are not limited toAlexa Fluor dyes, Bodipy dyes, fluorescein derivatives, rhodaminederivatives and Texas red. In a preferred embodiment, the firstfluorophore is acrylodan labeled either at cysteine or lysine and thesecond fluorophore is Rhodamine B.

Alternatively the protein may be “tagged” so that it binds to a solidsupport with high affinity. This includes but is not limited to taggingwith biotin, Flag-epitope or c-myc epitope or HA-tag,glutathione-S-transferase (GST), maltose binding protein (MBP), a chitinbinding domain (CBD), Thioredoxin, β-Galactosidase, VSV-Glycoprotein,calmodulin binding protein, a polystyrene (PS) hydrophobic tag or ametal affinity tag such as a 6X His tag. The specific association of theaffinity tag with the solid support material facilitates unboundbilirubin measurements in flat surface configurations including but notlimited to multi-well plates and microfluidics devices. By virtue oftheir attachment to solid supports the probes can be concentrated in arestricted, effectively two dimensional region. This enablesmeasurements of unbound bilirubin within thin layers of sample solutionsallowed to flow across the probes, which are confined to the effectivelytwo dimension region. This effectively allows for front surfacefluorescence measurements which reduces absorbance due to bilirubin andhemoglobin and facilitates measurements in whole blood. Thisconfiguration also allows for the possibility of repeated, samplesalternating with a wash bolus, or continuous measurements of unboundbilirubin by flowing sample continuously across the two dimensionallyconfined probes. The affinity tag(s) may be fused at either the NH2- orCOOH— termini or at both termini simultaneously as shown for example inTable 8. In a preferred embodiment, a 6X Histidine tag was fused toeither the FABP NH₂— or COOH— termini or at both termini simultaneouslywithout significantly changing the protein's bilirubin bindingproperties. In preferred embodiments the fusion peptide is composed oftwo separated Histidine regions at the COOH terminus of the probe. Alsoin a preferred embodiment the probes are immobilized on a solid supportincluding but not limited to Ni-polystyrene beads with or without ironcores. The iron cores facilitate magnetically concentrating theprobe-beads in the effectively two dimension regions of multiwellplates, microfluidic groves or other devices compatible withfluorescence measurements from effectively two dimensional regions.

In some embodiments the bilirubin probe immobilized on a solid supportprotein is a combination of two proteins labeled with differentfluorophores that excite at the same wavelength but emit at twodifferent wavelengths. One of the two proteins is responsive tobilirubin binding that is, it demonstrates a change in a fluorescenceindex upon binding of bilirubin to the protein. The second proteinlabeled with a different fluorophore may be sensitive to bilirubinbinding but it is not necessary for the second protein to be responsiveto binding of bilirubin. The second protein's fluorophore provides areference point so that a difference in ratio of fluorescence at twodifferent wavelengths is observed upon bilirubin binding. In a preferredembodiment the first, bilirubin sensitive, protein is labeled with 700DXand the second bilirubin insensitive protein is labeled with Texas Red,Bodipy Dyes or Alexa Fluor Dyes.

Using the Probes

In preferred embodiments of the invention, the sample used for thedetermination of unbound bilirubin is a fluid sample derived from ahuman, an animal or a plant. Preferably, the fluid is whole blood, bloodplasma, blood serum, urine, CSF, saliva, gastric juices, interstitialfluid or lymph. In other embodiments determination of unbound bilirubinis performed within the cytoplasm of a cell by microinjecting orotherwise transfecting the probe into the cell or is performed in theextracellular media of the cells.

A normal range for unbound bilirubin is determined from a healthypopulation and deviations from this normal range may indicate disease.

Unbound bilirubin probes are calibrated and used for measurements of[B_(f)] using equations 1-5 and as described in [Huber A H, Zhu B, KwanT, Kampf J P, Hegyi T and Kleinfeld A M. Fluorescence Sensor for theQuantification of Unbound Bilirubin Concentrations. Clin Chem 58:869-876, 2012].

Unbound bilirubin probes are used for measurements of [B_(f)] inpatients at risk for bilirubin mediated toxicity, such as 60% ofnewborns who have insufficient liver function to eliminate excessbilirubin [Maisels M J and McDonagh A F. Phototherapy for neonataljaundice. N Engl J Med 358: 920-928, 2008].

Unbound bilirubin probes are used for measurements of [B_(f)] inpatients receiving intravenous infusions of oil emulsions as well as inpatients with diseases that can increase [B_(f)] by decreasing thebinding affinity of bilirubin for albumin, such as sepsis, which iscommon in premature newborns and increases FFA levels [Nogueira A C,Kawabata V, Biselli P, Lins M H, Valeri C, Seckler M, Hoshino W, JuniorL G, Bernik M M, de Andrade Machado J B, Martinez M B, Lotufo P A,Caldini E G, Martins E, Curi R and Soriano F G. Changes in plasma freefatty acid levels in septic patients are associated with cardiac damageand reduction in heart rate variability. Shock 29: 342-348, 2008].

Unbound bilirubin probes are used for measurements of [B_(f)] inpatients receiving phototherapy, transfusion or other therapies designedto reduce bilirubin toxicity.

Because unbound bilirubin not total bilirubin is toxic, unboundbilirubin not total bilirubin should be monitored during phototherapy toensure that unbound bilirubin decreases significantly. Although totalbilirubin has been shown to decrease in response to phototherapy, in thepresence of bilirubin displacing molecules such as FFA, total bilirubinand unbound bilirubin can be almost completely decoupled. Under theseconditions virtually complete destruction of total bilirubin might berequired to lower unbound bilirubin levels to those considerednon-toxic. Thus total bilirubin levels would be required that are muchlower than currently achieved even for aggressive therapy. Moreover, theperoxidase assay cannot be used to monitor unbound bilirubin duringphototherapy because this test does not distinguish betweenphotoproducts (and conjugated bilirubin) and the “native” unconjugatedIX-α isomer. In contrast unbound bilirubin measured with the probesdescribed in this application are specific for the native unconjugatedIX-α.

The only method currently used for determining unbound bilirubin isbased on horseradish peroxidase oxidation of bilirubin [Jacobsen J andWennberg R P. Determination of unbound bilirubin in the serum ofnewborns. Clin Chem 20: 783, 1974]. Implementation of the peroxidaseassay is available using an FDA approved instrument (Arrows Ltd, Osaka,Japan). Adoption of this method for the general screening of jaundicednewborns has been limited because of issues with the Arrows method thatcomplicate accurate unbound bilirubin determinations [Ahlfors C E.Measurement of plasma unbound unconjugated bilirubin. Anal Biochem 279:130-135, 2000; Ahlfors C E, Vreman H J, Wong R J, Bender G J, Oh W,Morris B H and Stevenson D K. Effects of sample dilution, peroxidaseconcentration, and chloride ion on the measurement of unbound bilirubinin premature newborns. Clin Biochem 40: 261-267, 2007]. Most importantlymultiple, relatively large sample volume, measurements are required todetermine the equilibrium unbound bilirubin concentration andcorrections are needed for interferents and sample dilutions, using theArrows method.

Embodiments of the invention provide a new method for measuring unboundbilirubin that overcomes the shortcomings of the peroxidase—Arrowsmethod. This new method uses fluorescently labeled fatty acid bindingproteins (unbound bilirubin probes) that allow direct monitoring of theequilibrium unbound bilirubin concentration. The probes are specific forunconjugated bilirubin and bind bilirubin with high affinity. Moreover,unbound bilirubin probes are highly specific for unbound bilirubin anddo not respond or bind significantly to free fatty acids (FFA), othermetabolites and drugs present in blood. The unbound bilirubin probes areused to determine unbound bilirubin levels in jaundiced patientsincluding neonates to diagnose potential bilirubin neurotoxicity andthereby accurately direct treatment to prevent the consequences of suchtoxicity.

EXAMPLES

The following definitions are with reference to SEQ ID NO: 3.

“KR6” refers to the mutation of the following 6 surface lysines toarginine: 7R 20R 46R 100R 125R 130R.

“KR14” refers to the mutation of the following 14 surface lysines toarginine: 7R 16R 20R 29R 37R 46R 50R 88R 92R 94R 100R 125R 129R 130R.

“MGI” refers to the mutation of the wild-type NH2-terminus sequence ofMAFD (SEQ ID NO: 37) to MGIFD (SEQ ID NO: 38). In each case, theN-terminal methionine is removed by the cell to generate the matureprotein.

“MGCFD (SEQ ID NO: 39)” refers to the mutation of the wild-typeNH2-terminus sequence of MAFD (SEQ ID NO: 37) to MGCFD (SEQ ID NO: 39).In each case, the N-terminal methionine is removed by the cell togenerate the mature protein.

“MGGSATGIFD (SEQ ID NO: 40)” refers to the mutation of the wild-typeNH2-terminus sequence of MAFD (SEQ ID NO: 37) to MGGSATGIFD (SEQ ID NO:40). In each case, the N-terminal methionine is removed by the cell togenerate the mature protein.

Example 1 L24P19C7 (SEQ ID NO: 36)

Bilirubin probes are derived from a rat intestinal fatty acid bindingprotein (rI-FABP) as described previously for unbound FFA (FFAu) probesin U.S. Pat. No. 7,601,510, U.S. publication 2010/0298162 and [Huber AH, Zhu B, Kwan T, Kampf J P, Hegyi T and Kleinfeld A M. FluorescenceSensor for the Quantification of Unbound Bilirubin Concentrations. ClinChem 58: 869-876, 2012; Huber A H, Kampf J P, Kwan T, Zhu B andKleinfeld A M. Fatty acid-specific fluorescent probes and their use inresolving mixtures of different unbound free fatty acids in equilibriumwith albumin. Biochemistry 45: 14263-14274, 2006]. Combinatorialmutagenesis is used first to generate and screen mutant probes forresponses to FFAu. Among these probes about 10% do not respondsignificantly to FFAu and are screened further for their response tounconjugated bilirubin. Hits from this screen are selected foradditional mutagenesis to increase the affinity and selectivity forunbound bilirubin. An example from the results of these methods is theacrylodan labeled L24P19C7 (SEQ ID NO: 36) which respect to SEQ 3 hasthe mutations: 14R 18L 38V 60R 73F 106C 115R and 117D (Table 5). Theacrylodan reaction, at pH 9.3, primarily labels L24P19C7 (SEQ ID NO: 36)at the K27 side chain. L24P19C7 (SEQ ID NO: 36) was calibrated at 22° C.with aqueous bilirubin and by fitting with equation (5) yielded a K_(d)of 22 nM and virtually complete quenching at bilirubin concentrationsapproaching saturation (the remaining fractional intensity(Q_(s))=0.0042) (FIG. 1A). L24P19C7 (SEQ ID NO: 36) is not responsive tofree fatty acids (FFA). Titrating L24P19C7 (SEQ ID NO: 36) with unboundoleate either in the presence or absence of bilirubin produces no changein its fluorescence or equivalently the unbound bilirubin concentration(FIG. 1B). The FFA concentrations in FIG. 1B, of unbound oleate (themost abundant FFA in human blood plasma) are more than 10-fold higherthan the concentration in human plasma. In addition to its lack ofresponse to FFA, L24P19C7 (SEQ ID NO: 36) is also not responsive toother metabolites present in human plasma. Measurements of unboundbilirubin in 6 different adult blood plasma samples spiked withbilirubin demonstrate that in the absence of bilirubin the unboundconcentration is less than 1 nM and that the increase in unboundbilirubin follows the behavior predicted for the equilibrium betweenbilirubin and serum albumin.

Example 2 L24P19C7 (SEQ ID NO: 36)-Xc

Mutants of L24P19C7 (SEQ ID NO: 36) were synthesized in which a singlecysteine was substituted at side chain positions between 22 and 30 togenerate probes with stable, essentially unique, sites of acrylodanlabels and to optimize the interaction of bilirubin with the probe (FIG.2). The results demonstrate that K_(d) for bilirubin binding ranges from19 to 89 nM and the degree of quenching of acrylodan fluorescence(Q_(s)) ranges from about 1.7 to 6%. The optimal probe performance wasobtained with cysteine at positions 25 or 26. This demonstrates thattuning of the probe performance requires minimal experimentation afterits basic structure has been identified.

Example 3: BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)

TABLE 1 K_(d)s for binding BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35) K_(d) (nM)Bilirubin 16 Docosahexaenoate 22:6 (n-3) 4300 Arachidonate 20:4 (n-6)28600 Linolenate 18:3 (n-3) 3460 Linoleate 18:2 (n-6) 3120 Oleate 18:1(n-9) 2510 Stearate 18:0 75500 Palmitoleate 16:1 (n-7) 3140 Palmitate16:0 3200 Myristate 14:0 23400

BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35) is a bilirubin probe which is labeled withonly a single fluorophore, in this case acrylodan at position 25 byvirtue of the removal of 14 surface lysines (KR14), the lysine at 27and, relative to L24P19C, the cysteine at 106. Thus BL22P1B11 (SEQ IDNO: 35) has the structure: MGI-KR14-14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L115R 117D, relative to SEQ 3. In addition to possessing a unique singlefluorescent label, BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35) has an exceptionally largeaffinity for bilirubin (K_(d)=16 nM) and reveals virtually completequenching of the acrylodan fluorescence (Q_(s)=0.006) at bilirubinsaturation of the probe (FIG. 3). BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35) hasvirtually no response to fatty acids, K_(d)s for the most abundant FFArange from 3 to 75 μM (Table 1). Also similarly to L24P19C7 (SEQ ID NO:36), BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35) detects only bilirubin in human plasmaand [B_(f)] determined by BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35) is consistent withthe variation expected from bilirubin-albumin equilibrium in bilirubinspiked plasma (for example see FIG. 5).

Example 4: Bilirubin Ratio Probes BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)-Rh andBL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)-Dextran-Texas Red

BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35) provides accurate [B_(f)] values in aqueoussolutions including human blood samples, for samples with low totalbilirubin. However, with increasing total bilirubin concentrations, theexcitation and emission inner filter absorbance due to bilirubin canincrease significantly (equation (1)) and therefore without a preciseknowledge of the total bilirubin concentration and the absorptiongeometry (“d” in equation (1)), the apparent [B_(f)] may besignificantly in error. To overcome this source of uncertainty and toeliminate the need for determining the total bilirubin concentration, aratio form of the single wavelength probes such as BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO:35) is used. This is accomplished by adding a second fluorophore that isexcited at the same wavelength as the single wavelength probe and whoseemission is at a different wavelength than the single wavelength probe.For BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35) labeled with acrylodan, an appropriatewater soluble fluorophore is Rhodamine B, which can be excited at asimilar wavelength as acrylodan, for example 375 nm, and whose emissionis significantly longer than acrylodan so that Rhodamine fluoresces at575 nm and contributes negligibly to the acrylodan fluorescence at 525nm. Therefore the measurement of the I525/I575 ratio of intensities isused to determine [Bf] (equation (5)). Because the excitation innerfilter absorbance due to bilirubin is the same for acrylodan andRhodamine B and because the 1525 and 1575 intensities always appear asratios, the excitation inner filter absorbance does not affect [Bf]measurements, so long as bilirubin absorbance allows sufficienttransmission, which can almost always be achieved by reducing pathlength“d” sufficiently. In addition to eliminating excitation inner filterabsorbance due to bilirubin, measurements of the ratio of intensities at525 and 575 nm effectively eliminates emission inner filter due tohemoglobin and bilirubin. This type of ratio probe is prepared by mixingBL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35) together with Rhodamine B at a definedmolecular ratio and then lyophilizing the mixture for storage at −20° C.or lower or is prepared and stored as a solution at 4° C. In either casedetermination of Ro, the fluorescence ratio in the absence of bilirubinaccurately determines the BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)/Rhodamine Bmolecular ratio. Calibration of the BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)-Rh probeis carried out by measuring the I525/I575 ratio with increasing totalbilirubin. Fitting the titration curve with equation (3) is used todetermine Kd and as the results shown in FIG. 4 demonstrate that the Kd(16 nM) of the BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)-Rh probe is identical to thatof BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35) indicating that the presence of Rhodaminehas no effect on the bilirubin-probe interaction.

A ratio probe was also generated by mixing BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)together with defined amounts of Texas Red® labeled dextran (LifeTechnologies, D-3329). The new ratio probe was calibrated andlyophilized (FIG. 9) and calibrated after re-suspension in HEPES buffer.Calibration was carried out by measuring the I525/I615 ratio withincreasing total bilirubin. As observed in FIG. 9, the Kd for theBL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)-Dextran Texas Red ratio probe is 16 nM, whichis the same as for BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35) and BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO:35)-Rh. Thus, a secondary fluorophore can be free in solution (BL22P1B11(SEQ ID NO: 35)-Rh) or attached to a larger, inert polymer (BL22P1B11(SEQ ID NO: 35)-Dextran Texas Red) without significantly alteringprobe-bilirubin interactions.

The potential interference of conjugated bilirubin with the bilirubinprobes was estimated by measuring the binding affinity ofditaurobilirubin for BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)-Rh. The measurement wasperformed by measuring the change in fluorescence response of BL22P1B11(SEQ ID NO: 35)-Rh titrated with increasing concentrations ofditaurobilirubin. R-values were calculated for all concentrations andthe binding isotherm was fitted with equation (3) to obtain a K_(d) of301±9 nmol/L for ditaurobilirubin binding to BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO:35)-Rh (FIG. 5).

The effect of photobleaching (photo-oxidation and/orphoto-isomerization) on the determination of B_(f) using the bilirubinprobes was evaluated by measuring B_(f) with BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO:35)-Rh in samples from solutions of bilirubin that had been exposed tolight at 460 nm for increasing times. The B_(f) values were determinedusing equation (6). Total bilirubin concentrations (B_(T)) werecalculated using the measured R values with equation (6).

$\begin{matrix}{B_{T} = {{K_{d}\left( \frac{\left( {R - R_{o}} \right)}{\left( {{RrR}_{o} - R} \right)} \right)} + \frac{P_{T}{K_{d}\left( \frac{\left( {R - R_{o}} \right)}{\left( {{RrR}_{o} - R} \right)} \right)}}{K_{d} + {K_{d}\left( \frac{\left( {R - R_{o}} \right)}{\left( {{RrR}_{o} - R} \right)} \right)}}}} & (6)\end{matrix}$

The results show that B_(f) decreased by 78% (FIG. 6) and indicate thatBL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)-Rh has little or no sensitivity to either thephoto-oxidation or the more abundant photo-isomerization products.

Example 5: Measurement of [B_(F)] in Bilirubin Spiked Human Plasma withBL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)-Rh

Pooled human plasma (Golden West Biologicals) for which [albumin] was620 μM was spiked with bilirubin to generate plasma samples withbilirubin/albumin ratios from of approximately 0 to 0.9. Measurements of[Bf] were carried out using BL22P1B1-Rh in either a Fluorolog3 (JYHoriba) using 10×10 mm cuvettes or in a FFAu Meter (FFA Sciences)modified for measuring unbound bilirubin by replacing emission filterswith ones centered at 325 and 380 nm. Measurements of [Bf] were alsoperformed on the same samples using the peroxidase method of Jacobsenand Wennberg [Jacobsen J and Wennberg R P. Determination of unboundbilirubin in the serum of newborns. Clin Chem 20: 783, 1974]. Theresults indicate virtually identical results for all 3 measurements andgood agreement of the measured and results predicted for bilirubinbinding to a single human albumin site with a Kd=20 nM (FIG. 7). Theseresults demonstrate that the response of the bilirubin probes isentirely due to the interaction with bilirubin, the bilirubin probes arenot responsive to other metabolites present in human blood samples.Moreover, the agreement with the peroxidase method and with thepredictions of bilirubin-albumin equilibrium also demonstrates that theprobes yield accurate unbound bilirubin concentrations.

Example 6: Examples of Labeling Beads, and Dissociation and Effect onB_(F) Measurements

Bilirubin probe mutants were generated for labeling optimization withAlexa Fluor 680 and LI-COR 700DX and immobilization onto polystyrene orlatex beads. Mutants were derived from bilirubin probe, BL22P1B11 (SEQID NO: 35), for labeling with fluorescent dyes suitable for use with aplasma or whole blood bilirubin assay. The Alexa Fluor 680 dye wastested on mutants containing a single cysteine at various labelingpositions, labeling at position 25C exhibited maximum fluorescencequenching (˜40%) upon bilirubin binding. For probe immobilization onpolystyrene or latex beads, mutants were developed with single ormultiple reactive lysine residues opposite to the Alexa Fluor 680 dye atposition 25C (Table 6). In a preferred embodiment LI-COR 700DX (LI-CORBiosciences), was used to label mutants containing a single lysine atvarious labeling positions and labeling at position 25K exhibitedmaximum fluorescence quenching (≧60%) upon bilirubin binding (Table 6).For probe immobilization on polystyrene or latex beads, mutants weredeveloped with single or multiple reactive cysteine residues opposite tothe LI-COR 700DX dye at position 25K. Further improvement forimmobilization was achieved using two affinity based methods, doubleHis-tags and PS-tags (polystyrene binding peptide) to immobilize theLI-COR 700DX-labeled bilirubin probe onto polystyrene or latex beads(Table 8). One mutant (BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)_25K_C2X) withC-terminal double his-tags separated by a linker consisting of 11 aminoacid residues (SRAWRHPQFGG (SEQ ID NO: 28)) was found to have highbinding affinity to Ni-coupled Dyna polystyrene or latex beads (LifeTechnologies) and acceptable quenching by bilirubin (˜50%). Anothermutant (BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)_25K_PS19) with a PS-tag (PS19-1,RAFIASRRIRRP (SEQ ID NO: 29)) immediately after the His-tag at itsC-terminus also showed higher affinity than the template with a singleHis-tag (BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)_25K). Other PS tags that producedprobes that bound to the polystyrene or latex beads with high affinityincluded PS19-6L (RLLLRRLRR (SEQ ID NO: 30)) and PS19-6I (RIIIRRIRR (SEQID NO: 41)) (Table 8). Furthermore, the BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO:35)_25K_PS19 probe exhibited the highest bilirubin quenching both infree solution and on beads (>60%), presumably due the presence of theadditional PS-tag. Both probes generated a bilirubin quenching curvesimilar to the one from a standard fluorometer.

In a more preferred embodiment a bilirubin mutant probe was generated byconstructing and screening a linker library based on a LI-COR700DX-labeled BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)_25K_C2X template (Table 8). Thenew mutant probe has higher protein expression; no multiple labeling,little or no amine labeling at N-terminus, higher probe yield and highaffinities for the polystyrene or latex beads. For example (Table 4)approximately 12% of the PS19 probe dissociates from the beads after 60min incubation in a HEPES buffer such as described in [Huber A H, KampfJ P, Kwan T, Zhu B and Kleinfeld A M. Fatty acid-specific fluorescentprobes and their use in resolving mixtures of different unbound freefatty acids in equilibrium with albumin. Biochemistry 45: 14263-14274,2006]. This dissociated probe accounts for approximately 60% of thetotal fluorescence intensity (Table 4). The C2XFFA3P1H11 probe has aunique 3-amino acid linker (AAS) which was inserted between BL22P1B11(SEQ ID NO: 35)_25K and the first His-tag, and a novel 11-amino acid(SHRATPNTSPH (SEQ ID NO: 32)) linker between the first and secondHis-tag replaced the original linker in BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO:35)_25K_C2X. Testing of both clones showed significant improvement overPS19 and BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)_25K_C2X (Tables 2-4). Both mutantshave the following properties that make them the ideal choice forlarge-scale probe production and commercialization. High proteinexpression yield, low reactivity or accessibility of N-terminal amine by700DX, high probe yield with ˜100% eluted from Ni-beads with EDTA afterlabeling, high bilirubin quenching equivalent or better that PS19, thesame probe bilirubin quenching of the 700DX fluorescence for the probeimmobilized on polystyrene or latex beads as in free solution, 10 timeshigher bead affinity than PS-19 (˜5% free probe intensity vs. ˜60%) andunique linkers and spacers.

Time courses of C2XFFA3H11, C2XFFA3B3, and PS19 immobilized onNi-coupled Dyna polystyrene or latex beads were carried out on twodifferent days and are shown in Tables 2-4 in which bilirubin quenchingof the LiCor 700Dx fluorescence was mediated by bilirubin-albumincomplexes at total bilirubin/albumin of approximately 0.9.

TABLE 2 C2XFF3H11-700DX Supernatant Time Intensity as (minutes) % quench% of total C2XFFA3H11 0 24.21% 4 49.14% 8 51.47% 15 54.60% 30 56.81% 6058.14% 60S 58.97% 4.6%

TABLE 3 C2XFFA3B3-700DX Supernatant Time Intensity as (minutes) % quench% of total C2XFFA3B3 0 21.14% 4 42.06% 8 45.12% 15 48.67% 30 50.70% 6050.23% 60S 61.26% 7.8%

TABLE 4 PS19-1-700DX Supernatant Time Intensity as (minutes) % quench %of total PS19-1 0 29.46% 4 47.36% 8 50.46% 15 54.06% 30 53.74% 60 55.30%60S 49.23% 61.5%

Example 7 Measurements of Spiked Plasma with Immobilized BilirubinProbes in a Disposable Cartridge

The probe PS19-1 which is BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)_25K labeled withLiCor DX700 and with, in addition to the 6xHis tag, has a PS-tag,RAFIASRRIRRP at the C-terminus (Table 8), was immobilized on Ni-agarosebeads. These labeled beads were in turn immobilized in a “well” of a setof microchannel disposable cartridges designed for fluorometricmeasurements. Bilirubin spiked adult human blood plasma samples of 20μL, undiluted, were added to the cartridges and quenching of the DX700fluorescence by unbound bilirubin was determined for samples withincreasing [B_(f)] values. These measurements were used to determine theK_(d) of the immobilized PS19-1 and to evaluate reproducibility of thebilirubin probes in such cartridges. The K_(d) determined from thesemeasurements is consistent with the value obtained from the freeBL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)-Rh probe (FIG. 8) indicating thatimmobilization does not affect the equilibrium between the probe and thebilirubin-albumin interaction. Moreover, virtually the same results wereobtained using cartridges that were stored for more than 2 months afterpreparation.

Example 8: Single Cysteine Probes

TABLE 5 All residue numbers refer to SEQ ID 3, the template sequence.Construct Primary Fluor Kd Is Mutations L2P14F7 Texas Red C2-Maleimide18G 27C 31M 72A L2P14 F7 - K27C Acrylodan 250 0.02 18G 27C 31M 72A L2P14F7-KR14 - K27C Acrylodan 530 0.16 KR14-18G 27C 31M 72A L2P14F7 MGCFDKR14 Acrylodan MGCFD - KR14-18G 31M 72A L2P14F7 MGCFD KR14 DACIA MGCFD -KR14-18G 31M 72A L2P14F7 MGCFD KR14 Lucifer Yellow iodoacetamide MGCFD -KR14-18G 31M 72A L2P14F7 MGCFD KR14 Texas Red C2-Maleimide MGCFD -KR14-18G 31M 72A L2P14F7-MGCFD Texas Red C2-Maleimide 400 0.3 MGCFD -18G 31M 72A L2P14F7 MGI KR14 K27C Acrylodan 350 0 MGI - KR14 - 18G 27C31M 72A L10P9 E6 Acrylodan 1432 0.1 14T 18L 73M 117C 72A L22P19 B9Acrylodan 400 0 38R 72A 73M 106Q 115C L22P33 A10 Acrylodan 245 0.045 38R72A 73N 106S 115C L24P19 C7 Acrylodan 35 0.03 14R 18L 38V 60R 73F 106C115R 117D L24P19 C7 Alexa Fluor 680 C2-maleimide 14R 18L 38V 60R 73F106C 115R 117D L24P19 C7 Kodak X-Sight 670 LSS dye 14R 18L 38V 60R 73F106C 115R 117D L24P19 C7 Texas Red C2-Maleimide 14R 18L 38V 60R 73F 106C115R 117D L24P19C7-K27C Acrylodan 242 0.067 14R 18L 27C 38V 60R 73F 106C115R 117D L24P19C7-K27C - R106A Acrylodan 14R 18L 27C 38V 60R 73F 106A115R 117D L24P19 C7-KR14 Acrylodan KR14-14R 18L 38V 60R 73F 106C 115R117D L24P19C7-KR14-K27C Acrylodan KR14-14R 18L 27C 38V 60R 73F 106C 115R117D L24P19 C7 K27A Acrylodan 21 0.011 14R 18L 27A 38V 60R 73F 106C 115R117D L24P19 C7 K27K 22C Acrylodan 71 0.06 14R 18L 22C 38V 60R 73F 106C115R 117D L24P19 C7 K27K 24C Acrylodan 89 0.02 14R 18L 24C 38V 60R 73F106C 115R 117D L24P19 C7 K27K 25C Acrylodan 19 0.02 14R 18L 25C 38V 60R73F 106C 115R 117D L24P19 C7 K27K 26C Acrylodan 19 0.02 14R 18L 26C 38V60R 73F 106C 115R 117D L24P19 C7 K27K 30C Acrylodan 26 0.03 14R 18L 30C38V 60R 73F 106C 115R 117D L24P19 C7-K27A- Texas Red C2-MaleimideMGCFD - 14R 18L 27A 38V 60R 73F 106C 115R 117D MGCFD L24P19 C7-MGCFDTexas Red C5-Bromoacetamide MGCFD - 14R 18L 38V 60R 73F 106C 115R 117DL24P19 C7-MGCFD Texas Red C2-Maleimide MGCFD - 14R 18L 38V 60R 73F 106C115R 117D L24P19C7 - KR6 Acrylodan KR6-14R 18L 38V 60R 73F 106C 115R117D L45P2 E10 Acrylodan 18E 23L 31N 72G 73T 74A 78Y 102C 106W 115W 117LBL2P2 B6 Acrylodan 137 0.05 14R 18L 31C 38V 60R 73V 106A 115R 117DBL10P10 D10 Acrylodan 400 0.15 14F 18L 27C 38M 60Y 73F 106V 115R 117DBL10P14 E1 Acrylodan 14F 18L 27C 38S 60D 73F 106I 115R 117S BL10P19 F8Acrylodan 14M 27C 38F truncated after 44 BL10P23 H9 Acrylodan >50 0.1614R 27C 38I 60Y 73F 106V 115R 117D BL10P25 E7 Acrylodan 35 0.19 14F 18L27C 60R 73F 106V 115R 117D BL10P25E7-KR14 Acrylodan 35 ~0 KR14-14F 18L27C 60R 73F 106V 115R 117D BL10P25E7-MGI-KR14 Acrylodan 19 0 MGI -KR14 - 14F 18L 27C 60R 73F 106V 115R 117D BL10P8 D3 Acrylodan 1033 0 14G18L 27C 38M 60Y 73F 106I 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 Acrylodan 16 0 MGI -KR14 - 14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 Alexa Fluor750 C5-maleimide MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117DBL22P1 B11 BODIPY 577/618 MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L115R 117D BL22P1 B11 Alexa Fluor 680 C2-maleimide 110 0.37 BL22P1 B11 -130K Acrylodan MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D130K BL22P1B11 - 7K Alexa Fluor 680 C2-maleimide MGI - KR14 - 7K 14R 18L25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1B11 - AcrylodanMGGSATGIFD-KR14-14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R MGGSATGIFD 117DBL22P1 B11 - 24C Alexa Fluor 680 C2-maleimide 72 0.41 MGI - KR14 - 14R18L 24C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 - 26C Alexa Fluor 680C2-maleimide 197 0.43 MGI - KR14 - Y14R M18L V26C K27A L38V V60R A73FR106L Q115R Y117D BL22P1 B11 - 27C Alexa Fluor 680 C2-maleimide 70 0.4MGI - KR14 - Y14R M18L K27C L38V V60R A73F R106L Q115R Y117D BL22P1B11 - 27C Alexa Fluor 750 C5-maleimide 154 0.66 BL22P1 B11 - 29C AlexaFluor 680 C2-maleimide 118 0.65 MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 27A 29C 38V 60R 73F106L 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 - 30C Alexa Fluor 680 C2-maleimide MGI -KR14 - 14R 18L 27A 30C 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 - 33C AlexaFluor 680 C2-maleimide 250 0.45 MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 27A 33C 38V 60R 73F106L 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 - 33C Alexa Fluor 750 C5-maleimide 120 0.3BL22P1 B11 - 54C Alexa Fluor 680 C2-maleimide 160 0.52 MGI - KR14 - 14R18L 27A 38V 54C 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 - 54C Alexa Fluor 750C5-maleimide BL22P1 B11 - 74C Alexa Fluor 680 C2-maleimide 160 0.5 MGI -KR14 - 14R 18L 27A 38V 60R 73F 74C 106L 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 - 76C AlexaFluor 680 C2-maleimide 150 0.24 MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 27A 38V 60R 73F 76C106L 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 - 76C Alexa Fluor 750 C5-maleimide 140 0.55BL22P1B11 - 97C Alexa Fluor 680 C2-maleimide 100 0.5 MGI - KR14 - 14R18L 27A 38V 60R 73F 97C 106L 115R 117D BL22P1B11 - 98C Alexa Fluor 680C2-maleimide MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 27A 38V 60R 73F 98C 106L 115R 117DBL22P1 B11 - 27C Alexa Fluor 750 C5-maleimide 154 0.66 BL22P1 B11 - 33CAlexa Fluor 750 C5-maleimide 120 0.3 BL22P1 B11 - 54C Alexa Fluor 750C5-maleimide BL22P1 B11 - 76C Alexa Fluor 750 C5-maleimide 140 0.55BL22P2D4 Acrylodan MGI-14KR-14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106V 115R 117DBL22P2F3 Acrylodan MGI-14KR-14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106V 115R 117D

Example 9: Single Fluorescently Labeled Lysine Probes

TABLE 6 All residue numbers refer to SEQ ID 3, the template sequenceConstruct Primary Fluor Kd Is Mutations L1P1 B4 Acrylodan 711.3 0 14I72W 117W L1P1 C 12 Acrylodan 35.75 0.11 38I 72W 117W L1P12 E8 Acrylodan14L 38A 72G 117F 114E L1P14 D6 Acrylodan 308.7 0.04 14M 72V 117W L1P5 H9Acrylodan 14M 72I 117W L2P14 F7 Acrylodan 69.03 0.01 18G 31M 72A L2P14F7MGI Acrylodan 84 0.00 MGI - KR14 - 18G 27K 31M 72A KR14 K27K L2P22 B1Acrylodan 18Y 31V 55V 72A L5P16 H4 Acrylodan 350 0.00 126K 73F 72A L10P1H5 Acrylodan 432 0.04 14H 18L 31N 73S 117A 72A L10P11 B9 Acrylodan 7300.00 14H 18L 31R 73H 117V 72A L10P19 C1 Acrylodan 471 0.04 14L 18F 31R72A 73L 131D L10P20 D8 Acrylodan 229 0.09 14A 18F 31L 73V 117L 72A L14P7G4 Acrylodan 484 0.19 36A 38V 72A 82V 106A 115A 117M L14P9 G3 Acrylodan667 0.27 36A 38A 72A 82V 106V 115A 117M L14P10 B11 Acrylodan 661 0.0936V 38V 72A 82V 106V 115A 117A L14P12 G1 Acrylodan 701 0.23 36V 38A 72A82A 106A 115A 117I L14P13 A2 Acrylodan 1086 0.17 36I 38A 72A 82V 106A115V 117T L14P14 E4 Acrylodan 713 0.17 36A 38A 72A 82I 106A 115A 117VL14P15 F3 Acrylodan 383 0.23 36V 38A 72A 82V 106A 115T 117V L14P18 H7Acrylodan 484 0.26 36V 38A 72A 82V 106A 115T 117M L14P19 H8 Acrylodan435 0.15 36A 38V 72A 82M 106A 115A 117M L14P20 F5 Acrylodan 1339 0.2136V 38A 72A 82V 106V 115A 117M L24P12 C8 Acrylodan 2 0.04 14R 18L 38V60R 73F 115M 117D L24P19 C7 Acrylodan 33 0.01 14R 18L 27A 38V 60R 73F106A 115R 117D L24P19 C7 Kodak X-Sight 670 LSS dye L43P11 G2 Acrylodan14Q 18L 23L 31N 72G 73T 74A 104K 106W 115W 117S L43P8 H7 Acrylodan 14L18L 23L 31N 72G 73T 74A 104R 106W 115W 117W L45P5 E5 Acrylodan 18S 23L31N 72G 731 74A 78V 106W 115W 117L L46P3 A3 Acrylodan 18L 23R 31N 72G73T 74A 102H 106W 115W 117L BL1P1 F2 Acrylodan 14R 18L 38V 60R 73F 106G115R 117D BL1P2 H2 Acrylodan 40 0.00 14R 18L 38V 60R 73F 106A 115R 117DBL8P12 D3 Acrylodan 455 0.02 38A, 60F, 73F, 106V, 115R, 117D BL8P15 G6Acrylodan 3250 0.34 18L, 38V, 60Y, 73F, 106D, 115R, 117N BL8P20 G1Acrylodan 476 0.10 18L, 38T, 60Y, 73F, 106T, 115R, 117S BL8P20 G3Acrylodan 2308 0.09 18L, 38M, 60F, 73F, 106T, 115R, 117E BL8P21 E8Acrylodan 3216 0.28 18L 38I 60H 73F 106D 115R 117E BL8P9 C9 Acrylodan723 0.00 18L, 38F, 60F, 73F, 106D, 115R, 117R BL8P9 G9 Acrylodan 10500.29 18L, 38A, 73F, 106V, 115R, 117D BL10P20 G4 Acrylodan 14G 18L 38A60F 73F 106I 115R 117E BL22P1B11 - 25K Biotium CF750 SE 9500 0.19 MGI -KR14 - 14R 18L 25K 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1B11 - 26KBiotium CF750 SE 1225 0.60 MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 26K 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L115R 117D BL22P1B11 - 30K Biotium CF750 SE 1230 0.60 MGI - KR14 - 14R18L 27A 30K 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1B11 - 25K Kodak X-Sight 670LSS dye 700 0.61 MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25K 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117DBL22P1B11 - 26K Kodak X-Sight 670 LSS dye 260 0.50 MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L26K 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1B11 - 27K Kodak X-Sight 670 LSSdye 5250 0.48 MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117DBL22P1B11 - 29K Kodak X-Sight 670 LSS dye 640 0.48 MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L27A 29K 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1B11 - 30K Kodak X-Sight 670 LSSdye 480 0.56 MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 27A 30K 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117DBL22P1B11 - 25K LiCor IRDye 680 LT 239 0.67 MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25K 27A38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1B11 - 25K LiCor IRDye 700DX 80 0.14MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25K 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1B11 - 26KLiCor IRDye 700DX 109 0.22 MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 26K 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L115R 117D

Example 10: Two Fluorophore Bilirubin Probes

TABLE 7 All residue numbers refer to SEQ ID 3, the template sequence.Construct Primary Fluor Second Fluor Kd Qs Mutations Two fluorophorescovalently attached to probe L2P14F7 Acrylodan Texas Red-X SE 18G 31M72A L2P14F7 MGCFD KR14 Acrylodan Alexa Fluor 594 MGCFD - KR14 - 18G 31M72A L2P14F7 MGCFD KR14 Acrylodan Alexa Fluor 633 MGCFD - KR14 - 18G 31M72A L2P14F7 MGCFD KR14 DACIA Texas Red MGCFD - KR14 - 18G 31M 72AL2P14F7 MGCFD KR14 Lucifer Yellow Texas Red MGCFD - KR14 - 18G 31M 72Aiodoacetamide L2P14F7-MGCFD Acrylodan Texas Red C2-Maleimide MGCFD - 18G31M 72A L24P19 C7-K27A-MGCFD Acrylodan Texas Red C2-Maleimide MGCFD -14R 18L 27A 38V 60R 73F 106C 115R 117D L24P19 C7-MGCFD Acrylodan TexasRed C2-Maleimide MGCFD - 14R 18L 38V 60R 73F 106C 115R 117D BL10P25 E7Acrylodan Texas Red-X SE 14F 18L 27C 60R 73F 106V 115R 117DBL10P25E7-MGI-KR14 Acrylodan Texas Red-X SE MGI - KR14 - 14F 18L 27C 60R73F 106V 115R 117D BL10P25E7 - MGI - KR14 Acrylodan Rhodamine Red X-SEMGI - KR14 - 14F 18L 27C 60R 73F 106V 115R 117D BL10P25E7 - MGI - KR14Acrylodan Texas Red MGI - KR14 - 14F 18L 27C 60R 73F 106V 115R 117DBL22P1 B11 Acrylodan Cascade Yellow-SE MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25C 27A 38V60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 Acrylodan Dansyl chloride MGI - KR14 -14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 AcrylodanDapoxyl-SE MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117DBL22P1 B11 Acrylodan Dapoxyl Carboxylic Acid MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25C27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 Acrylodan NBD-sulfonylchloride MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22 P1B11 Acrylodan Rhodamine Isothiocyanate MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25C 27A 38V60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 Acrylodan Rhodamine Red X-SE MGI -KR14 - 14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 AcrylodanSPDP + Rhodamine MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117DRed X-SE BL22P1 B11 Acrylodan Texas Red-X SE MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25C27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 - 130K Acrylodan Rhodamine RedMGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60RA73F 106L X-SE 115R 117D 130K BL22P1B11 - 130K Acrylodan SPDP + Rhodamine Red MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25C 27A38V 60RA73F 106L 115R X-SE 117D 130K BL22P1B11 - Acrylodan Rhodamine RedX-SE MGGSATGIFD-KR14 - 14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F MGGSATGIFD 106L 115R117D BL22P1B11 - Acrylodan Rhodamine Red X-SE MGGSATGIFD-KR14 - 14R 18L25C 27A 38V 60R 73F MGGSATGIFD 106L 115R 117D BL22P1B11 - AcrylodanSPDP + Rhodamine Red MGGSATGIFD-KR14-14R 18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F X-SEMGGSATGIFD 106L 115R 117D BL22P2D4 Acrylodan MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L 25C27A 38V 60R 73F 106V 115R 117D BL22P2F3 Acrylodan MGI - KR14 - 14R 18L25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106A 115R 117D Second unattached (free) fluorophoreBL10P25E7 Acrylodan Rhodamine B 19 0 MGI - KR14 - 14F 18L 27C 60R 73F106V 115R 117D BL22P1 B11 Acrylodan Rhodamine B 16 0 MGI - KR14 - 14R18L 25C 27A 38V 60R 73F 106L 115R 117D

Example 11: Immobilized Bilirubin Probes

TABLE 8 All proteins are based on SEQ 3 and therefore have an additional6 His tag at the C terminus. N- terminal modification sequences replacethe N-terminal methionine of the template sequence (i.e. sequence Xchanges MGIFD (SEQ ID NO: 38) to X-GIFD (SEQ ID NO: 64)). C-terminalmodification sequences replace the C-terminal six histidine tag of thetemplate sequence (i.e. sequence Y changes RRDRGHHHHHH (SEQ ID NO: 65)to RRDRG-Y (SEQ ID NO: 66)). Fluorophores derivatized to 25K includedacrylodan, Biotum, Kodak X-Sight, and the LiCor IR dyes of Table 3.N-terminal Modification C-terminal Modification Construct SequenceSequence CHEMICAL LINKAGE THROUGH LYSINE BL22P1B11_25C-7KBL22P1B11_25C_7K,37K,46K,50K BL22P1B11_25C_7K,37K,46K,50K,88K,92KBL22P1B11_25C_7K,37K,46K,50K,129K,130KBL22P1B11_25C_7K,37K,46K,50K,88K,92K,129K,130K CHEMICAL LINKAGE THROUGHCYSTEINE BL22P1B11_25K_3C BL22P1B11_25K_7C BL22P1B11_25K_46CBL22P1B11_25K_50C BL22P1B11_25K_67C BL22P1B11_25K_83C BL22P1B11_25K_109CThe following clones are N-terminal mutants of BL22PlBll_25KBL23P1A8_25K MGACSGG (SEQ ID NO: 4) BL23P1B10_25K MGSAGCG (SEQ ID NO: 5)BL23P2A7_25K MGGGGCC (SEQ ID NO: 6) BL23P2C8_25K MGGSGGC (SEQ ID NO: 7)BL23P3A2_25K MGDTAGC (SEQ ID NO: 8) BL23P4B2_25K MGGDCGG (SEQ ID NO: 9)BL23P4B4_25K MGGCSGA (SEQ ID NO: 10) BL23P4B6_25K MGGGDGC (SEQ ID NO:11) BL23P4B7_25K MGSSNSC (SEQ ID NO: 12) BL23P4C8_25K MGSDCAY (SEQ IDNO: 13) BL23P4E2_25K MGDTNCG (SEQ ID NO: 14) BL23P4E7_25K MGGSGCS (SEQID NO: 15) BL23P4G5_25K MGGCGCG (SEQ ID NO: 16) BL23P5A4_25K MGANACG(SEQ ID NO: 17) BL23P5B7_25K MGGGACG (SEQ ID NO: 18) BL23P5E2_25KMGGNCGG (SEQ ID NO: 19) BL23P5H12_25K MGCGGSC (SEQ ID NO: 20)BL23P6B5_25K MGGSTSC (SEQ ID NO: 21) BL23P6C10_25K MGDGGCS (SEQ ID NO:22) BL23P6C5_25K MGATSCG (SEQ ID NO: 23) BL23P6D3_25K MGASCGY (SEQ IDNO: 24) BL23P6D9_25K MGDGACG (SEQ ID NO: 25) NON-COVALENT LINKAGEBL22P1B11_25K_N6C6 MGHHHHHH (SEQ ID NO: 67) BL22P1B11_25K_N6C6_G SMGHHHHHHGGSG GGSGSGSGHHHHHH (SEQ ID NO: 69) SGSG (SEQ ID NO: 68)BL22P1B11_25K_C2X HHHHHHSRAWRHPQFGGHHHHHH (SEQ ID NO: 70) BL22P1B11_25KC 2X_G S GGGSGGGSGGGTGGGSGGGRRADAAH HHHHHSRAWRHPQFGGHHHHHH (SEQ ID NO:71) BL22P1B11_25K_PS19D5(PS19-1) HHHHHHRAFIASRRIRRP (SEQ ID NO: 72)BL22P1B11_25K_PS19-6L HHHHHHRLLLRRLRR (SEQ ID NO: 73)BL22P1B11_25K_PS19-6I HHHHHHRIIIRRIRR (SEQ ID NO: 74) The followingclones are C-terminal mutants of BL22P1B11_25K C2XFFA3H11_25KAASHHHHHHSHRATPNTSPHHHHHHH (SEQ ID NO: 75) C2XFFA3B3_25KNDNHHHHHHPSNTNHNSNSNHHHHHH (SEQ ID NO: 76)

Example 12

Measurements of unbound bilirubin and unbound FFA were performed inblood samples, that would otherwise be discarded, obtained from 5extremely low birth weight (<2000 g) newborns treated with a fatemulsion (Intralipid®) at 3 to 3.5 g/kg/day. Unbound bilirubinmeasurements were performed using BL22P1B11 (SEQ ID NO: 35)-Rh in plasmasamples diluted 25 fold in HEPES buffer. FFAu concentrations weredetermined in plasma diluted 50 fold in HEPES buffer and measurementswere performed as described in [Huber A H, Kampf J P, Kwan T, Zhu B andKleinfeld A M. Fatty acid-specific fluorescent probes and their use inresolving mixtures of different unbound free fatty acids in equilibriumwith albumin. Biochemistry 45: 14263-14274, 2006]. Fluorescenceintensities were measured using an FFAu meter as described in [Huber AH, Kampf J P, Kwan T, Zhu B and Kleinfeld A M. Fatty acid-specificfluorescent probes and their use in resolving mixtures of differentunbound free fatty acids in equilibrium with albumin. Biochemistry 45:14263-14274, 2006] for FFAu and the same meter modified for emissions at525 and 575 nm for Bf. The unbound bilirubin concentrations weredetermined from the 525/575 nm fluorescence ratios using equation (6).Unbound FFA were performed using ADIFAB2 as described in Cantor et al[Cantor W J, Hoe Kim H, Jolly S, Moe G, Burstein J M, Mendelsohn A,Kleinfeld A M and Fitchett D. B-Type Natriuretic Peptide and SerumUnbound Free Fatty Acid Levels after Contemporary Percutaneous CoronaryIntervention. Journal of Invasive Cardiology 20: 186-188, 2008]. Thedistribution of FFAu species was estimated for Intralipid® infusionusing the approach of [Richieri, G and Kleinfeld, A M, Unbound freefatty acid levels in human serum. Journal of Lipid Research 36:229-240,1995].

TABLE 9 Unbound Bilirubin Unbound FFA Patient nM nM 1 33 35 2 9 20 3 941270 4 80 600 5 30 54

Although it is known that Intralipid® can increase total FFA and therebyincrease unbound bilirubin, the results of Example 12 demonstrate thatunbound FFA (FFAu) can increase by much larger factors than total FFA.This results because the ratio of total FFA to albumin increaseslinearly (about 10 fold in the study of Amin [Amin S B. Effect of freefatty acids on bilirubin-albumin binding affinity and unbound bilirubinin premature infants. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 34: 414-420, 2010]whereas FFAu increase essentially exponentially at large FFA to albuminratios, more than 1000 fold in Table 9. In Example 12 two of thepatients had FFAu levels of 600 and 1200 nM, whereas normal levels are1-2 nM [Apple F S, Kleinfeld A M and Adams J E. Unbound Free Fatty AcidConcentrations Are Increased in Cardiac Ischemia. Clinical Proteomics 1:41-44, 2004]. At levels even much lower than 600 nM many studies havedemonstrated toxic effects of FFA (or FFAu) including cardio toxicity,blocking the immune response as well as deleterious effects on manycellular functions [Kleinfeld A M and Okada C. Free fatty acid releasefrom human breast cancer tissue inhibits cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-mediatedkilling. J Lipid Res 46: 1983-1990, 2005; Oliver M F. Sudden cardiacdeath: the lost fatty acid hypothesis. QJM 99: 701-709, 2006]. Only bymonitoring FFAu levels during Intralipid® infusion can those infants atrisk for FFAu toxicity be identified.

The major (>75%) FFA species generated from Intralipid® are linoleic,oleic, palmitic and linolenic FFA. Because ADIFAB2 is most specific forstearic acid, for which Intralipid® contains only between 1.5 and 5.5%,FFAu probes with specificity for linoleic, oleic, palmitic and linolenicFFA will provide more accurate and sensitive detection of the rise inplasma FFAu due to Intralipid® hydrolysis. Such FFAu probes have beenproduced (Table 10) using the methods described in U.S. Pat. No.7,601,510 and U.S. publication 2010/0298162 and in [Huber A H, Kampf JP, Kwan T, Zhu B and Kleinfeld A M. Fatty acid-specific fluorescentprobes and their use in resolving mixtures of different unbound freefatty acids in equilibrium with albumin. Biochemistry 45: 14263-14274,2006]. Sensitive FFAu probes are necessary for detecting the rise in thepatient's FFAu levels, early in the titration of Intralipid®, which iscritical for the prevention of unbound bilirubin and FFAu from reachingtoxic levels.

TABLE 10 FFAu probes for measuring FFAu levels in Intralipid ® treatedpatients KD (nM) Clone Mutations LA OA PA SA ADIFAB2 72A 105.1 21.5 19.57.6 L19CP10C7 MGI-14R 18L 27C 71I 73F 117D 0.8 1.2 7.5 1.9 L138P1H8 N24CMGI-18L 21L 23Y 24C 31I 55V 72S 73S 74G 76V 117H 128Y 6.5 7.6 34.2 12.6L22P5E11 38R 69T 72A 73K 106A 6.7 3.1 18.3 2.2 L61P8 B12 8I 14L 18L 23L27Y 30C 31V 53I 55W 72G 73T 74A 78V 82V 91Y 25.7 4.3 8.5 15.0 93M 102V106W 115W 117L L4BP4B9 73W 74S 40.8 18.9 2.9 12.6 L119P3E5 18V 27C 31A72A 73W 23.0 12.7 4.0 7.4

It will be understood by those of skill in the art that numerous andvarious modifications can be made without departing from the spirit ofthe present invention. Therefore, it should be clearly understood thatthe forms of the present invention are illustrative only and are notintended to limit the scope of the present invention.

What is claimed is:
 1. A probe comprising an (iLBP), wherein the iLBPcorresponds to SEQ ID NO: 3 comprising one or more amino acidsubstitutions and a fluorophore wherein the fluorophore is attached to alysine residue, the N-terminus amino group of the iLBP, or to a cysteinesubstitution, and wherein the probe binds to bilirubin but does notsignificantly bind to fatty acid.
 2. The probe of claim 1, furthercomprising substitutions 14R, 18L, 25C, 27A, 38V, 60R, 73F, 106L, 115R,117D, optionally in combination with Rhodamine B (BL22P1B11).
 3. Theprobe of claim 1 further comprising substitutions 14R, 18L, 38V, 60R,73F, 106C, 115R and 117D, optionally in combination with Rhodamine B(L24P19C7).
 4. The probe of claim 1 comprising an iLBP, wherein thelipid binding protein corresponds to SEQ ID NO: 3 comprising one or moreamino acid substitutions at positions selected from 14, 18, 23, 25, 27,31, 36, 38, 55, 60, 72, 73, 74, 78, 102, 104, 106, 115 and
 117. 5. Theprobe of any one of claims 1-4, wherein the fluorophore is attached to acysteine substitution and wherein the cysteine substitution is selectedfrom the group consisting of positions 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 33,54, 74, 76, 97 and
 98. 6. The probe of any one of claims 1-4, whereinthe fluorophore is attached to a lysine substitution and wherein thelysine substitution is selected from the group consisting of positions22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 33, 54, 74, 76, 97 and
 98. 7. The probe ofany one of claims 1-4, further comprising substitutions 7R 20R 46R 100R125R and 130R (KR6).
 8. The probe of any one of claims 1-4, furthercomprising substitutions 7R 16R 20R 29R 37R 46R 50R 88R 92R 94R 100R125R 129R and 130R (KR14).
 9. The probe of any one of claims 1-4,wherein the N terminus MAFD is substituted with MGIFD.
 10. The probe ofany one of claims 1-4, wherein the N terminus MAFD is substituted withMGCFD.
 11. The probe of any one of claims 1-4, wherein the N terminusMAFD is substituted with MGGSATGIFD.
 12. The probe of any one of claims1-4, further comprising at least one linker.
 13. The probe of any one ofclaims 1-4 further comprising one or more linkers selected from ACSGGG,SAGCGG, GGGCCG, GSGGCG, DTAGCG, GDCGGG, GCSGAG, GGDGCG, SSNSCG, SDCAYG,DTNCGG, GSGCSG, GCGCGG, ANACGG, GGACGG, GNCGGG, CGGSCG, GSTSCG, DGGCSG,ATSCGG, ASCGYG, DGACGG, GGSGSGSGG, GGGSGGGSGGGTGGGSGGGRRADAA,SRAWRHPQFGG, RAFIASRRIRRP, RLLLRRLRR, RIIIRRIRR, AAS, NDN, PSNTNHNSNSN,SHRATPNTSPH and combinations thereof.
 14. A composition comprising theprobe of any one of claims 1-13.
 15. The probe of any one of claims 1-4comprising two fluorophores, wherein the first fluorophore is attachedto a lysine substitution and wherein the second fluorophore is attachedto a cysteine substitution which is selected from the group consistingof positions 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 33, 54, 74, 76, 97 and
 98. 16.A composition comprising an iLBP mutein labeled with a first fluorophoreand a second fluorophore, wherein the second fluorophore is free insolution or attached to a protein which does not bind bilirubin, whereinthe first fluorophore and the second fluorophore are capable ofexcitation at the same wavelength and wherein the emission wavelength ofthe first fluorophore and the second fluorophore are different andwherein the second fluorophore is not affected (does not change itsemission) in response to bilirubin binding to the iLBP mutein.
 17. Thecomposition of claim 16, wherein the first fluorophore is acrylodan andthe second fluorophore is selected from the group consisting ofRhodamine B, NBD, Lucifer yellow, Texas Red, a Bodipy dye and an AlexaFluor dye.
 18. The composition of claim 16, wherein the firstfluorophore is LiCor 700DX and the second fluorophore is, for example,Texas Red or an Alexa fluor dye, or a Bodipy dye.
 19. The composition ofany one of claims 16-18, wherein a change in ratio of fluorescence indexis measured at two different wavelengths and used to determine theunbound bilirubin concentration.
 20. The probe of any one of claims 1-4or the composition of any one of claims 16-18, wherein the emissionintensity of the fluorophore is not affected by the absorbance of bloodcomponents selected from bilirubin and hemoglobin.
 21. The probe of anyone of claims 1-4 further comprising a second fluorophore.
 22. The probeof claim 21, wherein the first fluorophore is attached to a cysteine andis selected from the group consisting of acrylodan, danzyl aziridine,4-[N-[(2-iodoacetoxy)ethyl]-N-methylamino]-7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazoleester (IANBDE), and4-[N-[(2-iodoacetoxy)ethyl]-N-methylamino-7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazole(IANBDA) and the second fluorophore is selected from the groupconsisting of Alexa Fluor dyes, Bodipy, fluorescein derivatives,rhodamine derivatives and Texas Red.
 23. The probe of claim 21, whereinthe first fluorophore is attached to a lysine and is selected from thegroup consisting of acrylodan, Biotium CF750SE, Kodak X-Sight 670 LSSdye, Licor IR Dye 680 LT and Licor IR Dye 700DX and the secondfluorophore is selected from the group consisting of Alexa Fluor dyes,Bodipy, fluorescein derivatives, rhodamine derivatives and Texas Red.24. The probe of claim 21, wherein the second fluorophore is free insolution or attached to an acceptor protein or peptide domain on theprobe.
 25. The probe of claim 24, wherein the acceptor protein orpeptide domain is selected from SNAP-tag, CLIP-tag, and ACP-tag.
 26. Theprobe of any one of claims 21-25, further comprising substitutions 7R20R 46R 100R 125R and 130R (KR6).
 27. The probe of any one of claims21-25, further comprising substitutions 7R 16R 20R 29R 37R 46R 50R 88R92R 94R 100R 125R 129R and 130R (KR14).
 28. The probe of any one ofclaims 21-25, wherein the N terminus MAFD is substituted with MGIFD. 29.The probe of any one of claims 21-25, wherein the N terminus MAFD issubstituted with MGCFD.
 30. The probe of any one of claims 21-25,wherein the N terminus MAFD is substituted with MGGSATGIFD.
 31. Theprobe of any one of claims 21-25, further comprising at least onelinker.
 32. The probe of any one of claims 21-25 further comprising oneor more linkers selected from ACSGGG, SAGCGG, GGGCCG, GSGGCG, DTAGCG,GDCGGG, GCSGAG, GGDGCG, SSNSCG, SDCAYG, DTNCGG, GSGCSG, GCGCGG, ANACGG,GGACGG, GNCGGG, CGGSCG, GSTSCG, DGGCSG, ATSCGG, ASCGYG, DGACGG,GGSGSGSGG, GGGSGGGSGGGTGGGSGGGRRADAA, SRAWRHPQFGG, RAFIASRRIRRP,RLLLRRLRR, RIIIRRIRR, AAS, NDN, PSNTNHNSNSN, SHRATPNTSPH andcombinations thereof.
 33. A composition comprising at least one probeselected from any one of claims 15 and 20-32.
 34. A solid substratecomprising the probe of any one of claims 1-4 attached to the solidsubstrate, wherein the solid substrate is preferably a polystyrene orlatex bead, Ni-agarose bead, optionally with iron core, and/ormicrofluidic device or multiwell plate.
 35. The solid substrate of claim34, wherein the N terminus MAFD of the probe is substituted with MGIFD.36. The solid substrate of claim 34, wherein the N terminus MAFD of theprobe is substituted with MGCFD.
 37. The solid substrate of claim 34,wherein the N terminus MAFD of the probe is substituted with MGGSATGIFD.38. The solid substrate of claim 34, wherein the probe further comprisessubstitutions 7R 20R 46R 100R 125R and 130R (KR6).
 39. The solidsubstrate of claim 34, wherein the probe further comprises substitutions7R 16R 20R 29R 37R 46R 50R 88R 92R 94R 100R 125R 129R and 130R (KR14).40. The solid substrate of claim 34 where in the probe further comprisesat least one linker.
 41. The solid substrate of claim 34 wherein theprobe further comprises one or more linkers selected from ACSGGG,SAGCGG, GGGCCG, GSGGCG, DTAGCG, GDCGGG, GCSGAG, GGDGCG, SSNSCG, SDCAYG,DTNCGG, GSGCSG, GCGCGG, ANACGG, GGACGG, GNCGGG, CGGSCG, GSTSCG, DGGCSG,ATSCGG, ASCGYG, DGACGG, GGSGSGSGG, GGGSGGGSGGGTGGGSGGGRRADAA,SRAWRHPQFGG, RAFIASRRIRRP, RLLLRRLRR, RIIIRRIRR, AAS, NDN, PSNTNHNSNSN,SHRATPNTSPH and combinations thereof.
 42. The solid substrate of claim34, wherein the probe is tagged for attachment to the solid substrate,and wherein the tag comprises one or more of His-tag, biotin,Flag-epitope, c-myc epitope, HA-tag, glutathione-S-transferase (GST),maltose binding protein (MBP), a chitin binding domain (CBD),Thioredoxin, β-Galactosidase, VSV-Glycoprotein, calmodulin bindingprotein, a polystyrene (PS) hydrophobic tag, and a metal affinity tag.43. The solid substrate of claim 34, further comprising a secondfluorophore, optionally attached to a protein that does not bindbilirubin.
 44. The solid substrate of claim 34, wherein the probecomprises a tag and the solid substrate comprises a receptor for thetag.
 45. The solid substrate of claim 44, wherein the tag is apoly-histidine tag and the solid substrate comprises an immobilizedmetal chelate.
 46. The solid substrate according to any one of claims34-42, wherein the fluorophore is attached to a cysteine residue andwherein the fluorophore is selected from the group consisting ofacrylodan, danzyl aziridine,4-[N-[(2-iodoacetoxy)ethyl]-N-methylamino]-7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazoleester (IANBDE),4-[N-[(2-iodoacetoxy)ethyl]-N-methylamino-7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazole(IANBDA), Texas Red C2-Maleimide, Lucifer yellow iodoacetamide,Alexafluor 680 maleimide, Kodak X-Sight 670 LSS dye, Texas redC2-maleimide, Texas Red C5-Bromoacetamide, Alexa Fluor 750 C5-maleimide,and BODIPY 577/618.
 47. The solid substrate according to any one ofclaims 34-42, wherein the fluorophore is attached to a lysine residueand wherein the fluorophore is selected from the group consisting ofacrylodan, Alexa Fluor dyes, Bodipy, fluorescein derivatives, rhodaminederivatives, Texas Red, Biotium CF750 SE, Kodak X-Sight 670 LSS dye,LiCor IRDye 680 LT, and LiCor IRDye 700DX.
 48. The probe of any one ofclaims 1-4, further comprising two or more tags at the C or N-terminusof the probe in combination with one or more linkers for attachment to asolid support.
 49. The probe of any one of claims 1-4, comprising alysine at position 25 labeled with LI-COR 700DX.
 50. The probe of claim49, attached to a solid support using two His-tags and two linkers. 51.The probe of claim 1 further comprising one or more tags, wherein thetags are selected from his-tag and PS-tags.
 52. The probe of claim 1further comprising at least one linker, wherein the linkers are selectedfrom the group consisting of ACSGGG, SAGCGG, GGGCCG, GSGGCG, DTAGCG,GDCGGG, GCSGAG, GGDGCG, SSNSCG, SDCAYG, DTNCGG, GSGCSG, GCGCGG, ANACGG,GGACGG, GNCGGG, CGGSCG, GSTSCG, DGGCSG, ATSCGG, ASCGYG, DGACGG, G,GGSGSGSGG, GGGSGGGSGGGTGGGSGGGRRADAA, SRAWRHPQFGG, RAFIASRRIRRP,RLLLRRLRR, AAS, NDN, PSNTNHNSNSN, and SHRATPNTSPH.
 53. The probe ofclaim 1, wherein the solid support is a polystyrene or latex bead.
 54. Amethod of calibrating bilirubin probes to determine Kd comprising:mixing the probe with an aqueous sample of a known concentration ofbilirubin, B_(t), measuring the fluorescence, and determining thecalibration parameters from the measured fluorescence by fitting withthe following equations 2 or 3: $\begin{matrix}{\frac{I_{\lambda \; {em}}}{I_{o}} = {1 - \frac{\left( {K_{d} + B_{t} + P_{T}} \right) - \sqrt{\left( {K_{d} + B_{t} + P_{T}} \right)^{2} - {4B_{T}P_{T}}}}{2P_{T}}}} & (2) \\{R = {- \frac{\begin{matrix}\sqrt{\left( {P_{T}^{2} + {\left( {{2K_{d}} - {2B_{T}}} \right)P_{T}} + K_{d}^{2} + {2B_{T}K_{d}} + B_{T}^{2}} \right)} \\{\left( {{rR}_{o}^{2} - R_{o}} \right) + {\left( {P_{T} + K_{d} - B_{T}} \right){rR}_{o}^{2}} + {\left( {{- P_{T}} + K_{d} + B_{T}} \right)R_{o}}}\end{matrix}}{2\left( {{B_{T}r^{2}R_{o}^{2}} - {\left( {P_{T} + K_{d} + B_{T}} \right){rR}_{o}} + P_{T}} \right)}}} & (3)\end{matrix}$ where I_(λem) is the fluorescence intensity of the probein the sample with blank subtracted, I_(o) is the intensity of the probein the absence of bilirubin, P_(T) is the total bilirubin probeconcentration, B_(T) is the total bilirubin concentration, R is themeasured fluorescence ratio ((I_(λ1)/I_(λ2)) where I_(λ1) is thefluorescence intensity from the first fluorophore at wavelength λ1 andI_(λ2) is the fluorescence intensity from the second fluorophore atwavelength λ2, R_(o) is the ratio in the absence of bilirubin, r is theI_(λ2)/I_(λ1) ratio of the probe in the absence of the secondfluorophore, and K_(d) is the dissociation constant.
 55. A method ofmeasuring the concentration of free bilirubin [B_(f)] comprising:optionally, measuring the fluorescence of the sample mixing the probewith a sample, and measuring the fluorescence, and optionally,subtracting the sample from probe with sample fluorescence, anddetermining the concentration of [B_(f)] from the measured fluorescence.56. The method of claim 55, wherein at least one of the followingequations 4-5 is used to calibrate the probe and/or measure [B_(f)]:$\begin{matrix}{\left\lbrack B_{f} \right\rbrack = {{K_{d}\left( {\frac{I_{o}}{I_{\lambda \; {em}}} - 1} \right)}.}} & (4) \\{\left\lbrack B_{f} \right\rbrack = {K_{d}\left( \frac{\left( {R - R_{o}} \right)}{\left( {{RrR}_{o} - R} \right)} \right)}} & (5)\end{matrix}$ where, I_(λem) is the fluorescence intensity of the probein the sample with blank subtracted, I_(o) is the intensity of the probein the absence of bilirubin, R is the measured fluorescence ratio((I_(λ1)/I_(λ2)) where I_(λ1) is the fluorescence intensity from thefirst fluorophore at wavelength λ1 and I_(λ2) is the fluorescenceintensity from the second fluorophore at wavelength λ2, R_(o) is theratio in the absence of bilirubin, r is the I_(λ2)/I_(λ1) ratio of theprobe in the absence of the second fluorophore, K_(d) is thedissociation constant, and Is is the emission intensity at bilirubinsaturation of the probe.
 57. The method of claim 55, wherein the probecomprises two fluorophores or a combination of a probe comprising onefluorophore and a second fluorophore free in solution or a secondfluorophore attached to a protein which does not bind bilirubin.
 58. Themethod of claim 55, wherein the probe comprises a single fluorophore andthe method further comprises correcting for inner filter excitation. 59.The method of any one of claims 54-58, wherein the sample is mixed witha carrier macromolecule for the bilirubin selected from the groupconsisting of albumin, lipid binding proteins, lipid vesicles andcyclodextrin.
 60. The method of any one of claims 54-59, wherein theprobe is attached to a solid support.
 61. The method of any one ofclaims 54-60 wherein the Bf concentrations are determined usingdisposable microfluidics devices which optionally allow measurements ofundiluted blood samples.
 62. The method of any one of claims 54-61,wherein the sample is from a human, an animal or a plant.
 63. The methodof any one of claims 54-62, wherein the sample is selected from thegroup consisting of whole blood, blood plasma, blood serum, urine, CSF,saliva, gastric juices, interstitial fluid and lymph.
 64. The method ofany one of claims 54-63, wherein the sample is from patients receivingintravenous infusion of oil emulsions.
 65. The method of any one ofclaims 54-64, wherein the sample is from patients that are receivingdrugs that displace bilirubin from albumin and/or such patients may beproducing, from the infused oil emulsion, disease or stress, moleculesthat displace bilirubin from albumin.
 66. The method of any one ofclaims 54-65, wherein the sample is from patients that are undergoingphototherapy, transfusion or other therapies that reduce bilirubinlevels.
 67. A method for measuring the concentration of unbound FFA in ablood sample from patients receiving intravenous infusion of an oilemulsion comprising the steps of: optionally, measuring the fluorescenceof the sample mixing the sample and an FFAu probe, measuring the probefluorescence, optionally, subtracting the probe with sample from thesample fluorescence, and calculating the FFAu concentration.
 68. Themethod of claim 67, further comprising determining damage to the patientbased upon the FFAu concentration and providing a treatment to correctthe damage.
 69. A kit comprising: one or more collection devices forcollecting a sample from a patient, one or more probes according to anyone of claims 1-14 or the composition of claim 15 comprising one or moreprobes in a suitable carrier, and optionally, a reference standardcomprising a known concentration of unbound bilirubin.
 70. A probe asdefined in any of Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and
 10. 71. A method todetermine risk of unbound bilirubin and/or unbound FFA toxicity inpatients receiving a fat emulsion (Intralipid®) comprising: obtaining asample from the patient, contacting the sample with one or more probesselected from the group consisting of ADIFAB2, L19CP10C7, L138P1H8N24C,L22P5E11, L61P8B12, L4BP4B9, and L119P3E5 to determine levels of one ormore FFAu, determining levels of unbound bilirubin, and comparing FFAuand unbound bilirubin levels to levels obtained from a normal populationto determine risk of toxicity.
 72. A solid substrate comprising a probecomprising an iLBP, wherein the lipid binding protein corresponds to SEQID NO: 3 comprising one or more amino acid substitutions and afluorophore wherein the fluorophore is attached to a lysine residue, theN-terminus amino group of the iLBP, or to a cysteine substitution, andwherein the probe binds to fatty acid attached to the solid substrate,wherein the solid substrate is preferably a polystyrene or latex bead,Ni-agarose bead, optionally with iron core, microfluidic device, ormultiwell plate.
 73. The solid substrate of claim 72, wherein the Nterminus MAFD of the probe is substituted with MGIFD.
 74. The solidsubstrate of claim 72, wherein the N terminus MAFD of the probe issubstituted with MGCFD.
 75. The solid substrate of claim 72, wherein theN terminus MAFD of the probe is substituted with MGGSATGIFD.
 76. Thesolid substrate of claim 72, wherein the probe further comprisessubstitutions 7R 20R 46R 100R 125R and 130R (KR6).
 77. The solidsubstrate of claim 72, wherein the probe further comprises substitutions7R 16R 20R 29R 37R 46R 50R 88R 92R 94R 100R 125R 129R and 130R (KR14).78. The solid substrate of claim 72 where in the probe further comprisesat least one linker.
 79. The solid substrate of claim 72 wherein theprobe further comprises one or more linkers selected from ACSGGG,SAGCGG, GGGCCG, GSGGCG, DTAGCG, GDCGGG, GCSGAG, GGDGCG, SSNSCG, SDCAYG,DTNCGG, GSGCSG, GCGCGG, ANACGG, GGACGG, GNCGGG, CGGSCG, GSTSCG, DGGCSG,ATSCGG, ASCGYG, DGACGG, GGSGSGSGG, GGGSGGGSGGGTGGGSGGGRRADAA,SRAWRHPQFGG, RAFIASRRIRRP, RLLLRRLRR, RIIIRRIRR, AAS, NDN, PSNTNHNSNSN,SHRATPNTSPH and combinations thereof.
 80. The solid substrate of claim72, wherein the probe is tagged for attachment to the solid substrate,and wherein the tag comprises one or more of His-tag, biotin,Flag-epitope, c-myc epitope, HA-tag, glutathione-S-transferase (GST),maltose binding protein (MBP), a chitin binding domain (CBD),Thioredoxin, β-Galactosidase, VSV-Glycoprotein, calmodulin bindingprotein, a polystyrene (PS) hydrophobic tag, and a metal affinity tag.81. The solid substrate of claim 72, further comprising a secondfluorophore, optionally attached to a protein that does not bind FFAu.82. The solid substrate of claim 72, wherein the probe comprises a tagand the solid substrate comprises a receptor for the tag.
 83. The solidsubstrate of claim 82, wherein the tag is a poly-histidine tag and thesolid substrate comprises an immobilized metal chelate.